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| − | {{Taxobox | + | {{Bird id |
| − | | color = pink
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| | | name = Red-winged Blackbird | | | name = Red-winged Blackbird |
| − | | status = LC | + | | latin_name = Agelaius phoeniceus |
| − | | image = Red winged blackbird - natures pics.jpg | + | | level = 4 |
| − | | image_width = 250px | + | | image_1 = Red winged blackbird - natures pics.jpg |
| − | | image_caption = Male
| + | | caption_1 = Male |
| − | | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | + | | image_2 = Agelaius-phoeniceus-008.jpg |
| − | | phylum = [[Chordata]] | + | | caption_2 = Female |
| − | | classis = [[Aves]] | + | | range_map = |
| − | | ordo = [[Passeriformes]] | + | | call = Agelaius-phoeniceus-001.ogg |
| − | | familia = [[Icterid]]ae
| + | | description =The '''Red-winged Blackbird''', '''''Agelaius phoeniceus''''', is a passerine bird found in most of North and much of Central America. It breeds from Alaska and Newfoundland south to Florida, the Gulf of Mexico, Mexico and Guatemala, with isolated populations in western El Salvador, northwestern Honduras and northwestern Costa Rica. It may winter as far north as Pennsylvania and British Columbia, but northern populations are generally bird migration, moving south to Mexico and the southern United States. |
| − | | genus = ''[[Agelaius]]'' | |
| − | | species = '''''A. phoeniceus'''''
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| − | | binomial = ''Agelaius phoeniceus''
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| − | | binomial_authority = ([[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[1766]])
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| − | }}
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| − | The '''Red-winged Blackbird''', '''''Agelaius phoeniceus''''', is a [[passerine]] [[Aves|bird]] of the family [[Icterid]]ae found in most of [[North America|North]] and much of [[Central America]]. It breeds from [[Alaska]] and [[Newfoundland]] south to [[Florida]], the [[Gulf of Mexico]], [[Mexico]] and [[Guatemala]], with isolated populations in western [[El Salvador]], northwestern [[Honduras]] and northwestern [[Costa Rica]]. It may winter as far north as [[Pennsylvania]] and [[British Columbia]], but northern populations are generally [[bird migration|migratory]], moving south to Mexico and the southern [[United States]]. | + | The common name for this species is taken from the mainly black adult male's distinctive red shoulder patches, or "epaulets", which are visible when the bird is flying or displaying. At rest, the male also shows a pale yellow wingbar. The female is blackish-brown and paler below. The female is considerably smaller than the male, at 17-18 cm (7 inches) length and 36 g weight, against his 22-24 cm (9.5 inches) and 64 g. Young birds resemble the female, but are paler below and have buff feather fringes. Both sexes have a sharply pointed bill. |
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| − | __TOC__
| + | The Red-winged Blackbird feeds primarily on plant seeds, including weeds and waste grain, but about a quarter of its diet consists of insects, spiders, mollusks and other small animals, considerably more so during breeding season (Srygley & Kingsolver 1998). In season, it eats blueberries, blackberries, and other fruit. These birds can be lured to backyard bird feeders by bread and seed mixtures. |
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| − | [[Image:Agelaius-phoeniceus-008.jpg|220px|thumb|left|Female]] The common name for this species is taken from the mainly black adult male's distinctive red shoulder patches, or "epaulets", which are visible when the bird is flying or displaying. At rest, the male also shows a pale yellow wingbar. The female is blackish-brown and paler below. The female is considerably smaller than the male, at 17-18 cm (7 inches) length and 36 g weight, against his 22-24 cm (9.5 inches) and 64 g. Young birds resemble the female, but are paler below and have buff feather fringes. Both sexes have a sharply pointed bill.
| + | When migrating north, these birds travel in single-sex flocks, and the males usually arrive a few days before the females. Once they have reached the location where they plan to breed, the males stake out territories by singing. They defend their territory aggressively, both against other male Red-winged Blackbirds and against birds they perceive as threatening, including crows, Ospreys, hawks, and even humans. |
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| − | There are a number of subspecies, some of dubious status, but the 'Bicolored Blackbird' ''A. p. gubernator'' of California and central Mexico is distinctive. The male lacks the yellow wing patch of the nominate race, and the female is much darker than the female nominate. The taxonomy of this form is little understood, with the relationships between the two isolated Bicolored populations, and between these and Red-winged still unclear.
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| − | The Red-winged Blackbird feeds primarily on plant [[seed]]s, including weeds and waste grain, but about a quarter of its diet consists of [[insect]]s, [[spider]]s, [[mollusk]]s and other small animals, considerably more so during breeding season (Srygley & Kingsolver 1998). In season, it eats [[Blueberry|blueberries]], [[Blackberry|blackberries]], and other [[fruit]]. These birds can be lured to backyard [[bird feeder]]s by bread and seed mixtures.
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| − | When migrating north, these birds travel in single-sex [[flock]]s, and the males usually arrive a few days before the females. Once they have reached the location where they plan to breed, the males stake out territories by singing. They defend their territory aggressively, both against other male Red-winged Blackbirds and against birds they perceive as threatening, including [[crow]]s, [[Osprey]]s, [[hawk]]s, and even humans. | |
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| | The call of this species is a throaty ''check'', and the male's song is scratchy ''oak-a-lee'' (see below). | | The call of this species is a throaty ''check'', and the male's song is scratchy ''oak-a-lee'' (see below). |
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| − | Red-winged Blackbirds prefer [[marsh]]es, but will nest near any body of water. Pairs raise two or three clutches per season, in a new [[nest]] for each clutch. The nests are cups of vegetation, and are either built in shrubs or attached to marsh grass. A clutch comprises three to five [[Egg (biology)|egg]]s. These are incubated by the female and hatch in 11-12 days. Red-winged Blackbirds are hatched blind and naked, but are ready to leave the nest ten days after hatching. | + | Red-winged Blackbirds prefer marshes, but will nest near any body of water. Pairs raise two or three clutches per season, in a new nest for each clutch. The nests are cups of vegetation, and are either built in shrubs or attached to marsh grass. A clutch comprises three to five eggs. These are incubated by the female and hatch in 11-12 days. Red-winged Blackbirds are hatched blind and naked, but are ready to leave the nest ten days after hatching. |
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| − | Red-winged Blackbirds are [[polygynous]], with territorial males defending up to 10 females. However, females frequently copulate with males other than their social mate and often lay clutches of mixed [[paternity]].
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| − | When the breeding season is over, Red-winged Blackbirds gather in huge flocks, sometimes numbering in the millions. In some parts of the United States, they are considered to be pests because these flocks can consume large amounts of cultivated grain or [[rice]]. This bird's numbers are declining due to [[habitat (ecology)|habitat]] loss and the use of [[poison]] to prevent this loss of crops.
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| − | Despite the similar names, the Red-winged Blackbird is not related to the European [[Redwing]] or the Old World [[Blackbird|Common Blackbird]], which are [[thrush (bird)|thrushes]] (''Turdidae'').
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| − | ==Gallery==
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| − | {{Commons|Agelaius phoeniceus}}
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| − | <gallery>
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| − | Image:Blackbird-sunset-03.jpg|[[Backlighting (lighting design)|Backlit]] flock.
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| − | </gallery>
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| − | == Media ==
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| − | {{listen|filename=Agelaius-phoeniceus-001.ogg|title=''Cong-a-lee!'' call|description=One of several calls given by a male red-winged blackbird.}}
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| − | ==References==
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| − | * {{IUCN2006|assessors='''BirdLife International'''|year=2004|id=54142|title=Agelaius phoeniceus|downloaded=09 May 2006}} Database entry includes justification for why this species is of least concern
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| − | * '''Jaramillo''', Alvaro & '''Burke''', Peter (1999): ''New World Blackbirds''. [[Helm Identification Guides|Christopher Helm]], London. <small>ISBN 0-7136-4333-1</small>
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| − | * '''Srygley''', Robert B. & '''Kingsolver''', Joel G. (1998): Red-wing blackbird reproductive behaviour and the palatability, flight performance, and morphology of temperate pierid butterflies (''Colias'', ''Pieris'', and ''Pontia''). ''[[Biological Journal of the Linnean Society|Biol. J. Linn. Soc.]]'' '''64'''(1): 41–55. [http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/ap/bj/1998/00000064/00000001/art00200 HTML fulltext]
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| − | * '''Stiles''', F. Gary & '''Skutch''', Alexander Frank (1989): ''A guide to the birds of Costa Rica''. Comistock, Ithaca. <small>ISBN 0-8014-9600-4</small>
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| − | ==External links==
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| − | * [http://ibc.hbw.com/ibc/phtml/especie.phtml?idEspecie=9688 Red-winged Blackbird videos] on the Internet Bird Collection
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| − | * [http://www.birds.cornell.edu/AllAboutBirds/BirdGuide/Red-winged_Blackbird.html Red-winged Blackbird] - Cornell Lab for Ornithology
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| − | * [http://www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/id/framlst/i4980id.html Red-winged Blackbird] - USGS Patuxent
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| − | * [http://sdakotabirds.com/species/red_winged_blackbird_info.htm Red-winged Blackbird] - South Dakota Birds
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| − | * [http://www.enature.com/fieldguides/detail.asp?allSpecies=y&searchText=red-winged%20blackbird&curGroupID=1&lgfromWhere=&curPageNum=1 Red-winged Blackbird] - eNature.com
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| − | ==Further reading==
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| − | ''Note: from 1995 and later.''
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| − | ===Book===
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| − | * Yasukawa, K., and W. A. Searcy. 1995. ''Red-winged Blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus)''. In T''he Birds of North America'', No. 184 (A. Poole and F. Gill, eds.). The Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, and The American Ornithologists’ Union, Washington, D.C.
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| − | ===Thesis===
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| − | * Armstrong MA. Ph.D. (2002). ''Defenses of red-winged blackbirds against brood parasites and predators: The acquisition of threat recognition and the dynamics of group defense''. State University of New York at Binghamton, United States -- New York.
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| − | | |
| − | * Clotfelter ED. Ph.D. (1998). ''Impact of brown-headed cowbird brood parasitism on red-winged blackbirds and factors influencing patterns of parasitism''. The University of Wisconsin - Madison, United States -- Wisconsin.
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| − | * Dufour KW. Ph.D. (1997). ''Symmetry, quality, and sexual success in male red-winged blackbirds''. Carleton University (Canada), Canada.
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| − | | |
| − | * Flemming SP. Ph.D. (1996). ''Communal roosts and colonies of red-winged blackbirds function as flock formation centres''. Queen's University at Kingston (Canada), Canada.
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| − | | |
| − | * Furey MA. M.S. (2003). ''Perch availability and vegetation structure in upland breeding habitat selection by red-winged blackbirds in a floodplain restoration site''. University of Missouri - Columbia, United States -- Missouri.
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| − | * Glassey BC. Ph.D. (2000). ''Resource competition among nestling red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus)''. The University of Manitoba (Canada), Canada.
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| − | * Hintz JV. Ph.D. (1997). ''The hormonal regulation of premigratory fat deposition and winter fattening in red-winged blackbirds''. The Union Institute, United States -- Ohio.
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| − | * Kren J. Ph.D. (1996). ''Proximate and ultimate mechanisms of red-winged blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus) responses to interspecific brood parasitism''. The University of Nebraska - Lincoln, United States -- Nebraska.
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| − | | |
| − | * Pribil S. Ph.D. (1996). ''Tests of hypotheses for the occurrence of polygyny in territorial birds using the red-winged blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus)''. University of Ottawa (Canada), Canada.
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| − | * Sawin RS. Ph.D. (2002). ''The influence of male breeding experience on reproductive success in red-winged blackbirds''. North Dakota State University, United States -- North Dakota.
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| − | | |
| − | * Vierling KT. Ph.D. (1998). ''Source and sink population dynamics of red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus) in Boulder County, Colorado''. University of Colorado at Boulder, United States -- Colorado.
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| − | | |
| − | * Zimmerling JR. Ph.D. (2003). ''Comparative reproductive performance of red-winged blackbirds nesting on sewage lagoons and on natural wetlands in eastern Ontario''. The University of Western Ontario (Canada), Canada.
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| − | ===Articles===
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| − | * Albers PH, Hoffman DJ, Buscemi DM & Melancon MJ. (2003). ''Effects of the mosquito larvicide GB-1111 on red-winged blackbird embryos''. Environmental Pollution. vol '''125''', no 3. p. 447-451.
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| − | | |
| − | * Bishop CA, Koster MD, Chek AA, Hussell DJT & Jock K. (1995). ''Chlorinated hydrocarbons and mercury in sediments, red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus) and tree swallows (Tachycineta bicolor) from wetlands in the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence River Basin''. Environmental Toxicology & Chemistry. vol '''14''', no 3. p. 491-501.
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| − | | |
| − | * Blackwell BF & Dolbeer RA. (2001). ''Decline of the red-winged blackbird population in Ohio correlated to changes in agriculture (1965-1996)''. Journal of Wildlife Management. vol '''65''', no 4. p. 661-667.
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| − | * Brunet R, Caza N & Cyr A. (1996). ''Food intake and circadian rhythms of activity of red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus). A time-course study on the effects of alpha-chloralose and secobarbital''. Biological Rhythm Research. vol '''27''', no 2. p. 227-240.
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| − | * Brunet R, Girard C & Cyr A. (1997). ''Comparative study of the signs of intoxication and changes in activity level of red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus) exposed to dimethoate''. Agriculture Ecosystems & Environment. vol '''64''', no 3. p. 201-209.
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| − | | |
| − | * Burford JE, Friedrich TJ & Yasukawa K. (1998). ''Response to playback of nestling begging in the red-winged blackbird, Agelaius phoeniceus''. Animal Behaviour. vol '''56''', no 3. p. 555-561.
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| − | | |
| − | * Clark AB & Lee W-H. (1998). ''Red-winged blackbird females fail to increase feeding in response to begging call playbacks''. Animal Behaviour. vol '''56''', no 3. p. 563-570.
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| − | | |
| − | * Clotfelter ED. (1997). ''Red-winged blackbird parental investment following brood parasitism by brown-headed cowbirds: Is parentage important?''. Behavioral Ecology & Sociobiology. vol '''41''', no 3. p. 193-201.
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| − | | |
| − | * Clotfelter ED. (1998). ''What cues do brown-headed cowbirds use to locate red-winged blackbird host nests?''. Animal Behaviour. vol '''55''', no 5. p. 1181-1189.
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| − | | |
| − | * Clotfelter ED & Yasuka K. (1999). ''Impact of brood parasitism by Brown-headed Cowbirds on Red-Winged Blackbird reproductive success''. Condor. vol '''101''', no 1. p. 105-114.
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| − | | |
| − | * Clotfelter ED & Yasukawa K. (1999). ''The effect of aggregated nesting on Red-winged Blackbird nest success and brood parasitism by Brown-headed Cowbirds''. Condor. vol '''101''', no 4. p. 729-736.
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| − | * Curtis PD, Rowland ED, Jensen PG & Hoffmann MP. (2004). ''Obstructive non-woven fiber barriers for reducing red-winged blackbird damage to sweet corn''. Crop Protection. vol '''23''', no 9. p. 819-823.
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| − | * Edwards S, Messenger E & Yasukawa K. (1999). ''Do Red-winged Blackbird parents and their nestlings recognize each other?''. Journal of Field Ornithology. vol '''70''', no 3. p. 297-309.
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| − | | |
| − | * Edwards SV & Dillon M. (2004). ''Hitchhiking and recombination in birds: evidence from Mhc-linked and unlinked loci in Red-winged Blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus)''. Genetical Research. vol '''84''', no 3. p. 175-192.
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| − | * Edwards SV, Gasper J & March M. (1998). ''Genomics and polymorphism of Agph-DAB1, an Mhc class II B gene in red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus)''. Molecular Biology & Evolution. vol '''15''', no 3. p. 236-250.
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| − | | |
| − | * Forbes S & Glassey B. (2000). ''Asymmetric sibling rivalry and nestling growth in red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus)''. Behavioral Ecology & Sociobiology. vol '''48''', no 6. p. 413-417.
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| − | | |
| − | * Forbes S, Glassey B, Thornton S & Earle L. (2001). ''The secondary adjustment of clutch size in red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus)''. Behavioral Ecology & Sociobiology. vol '''50''', no 1. p. 37-44.
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| − | | |
| − | * Garrido O & Kirkconnell A. (1996). ''Taxonomic status of the Cuban form of the Red-winged blackbird''. Wilson Bulletin. vol '''108''', no 2. p. 372-373.
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| − | * Gasper JS, Shiina T, Inoko H & Edwards SV. (2001). ''Songbird genomics: Analysis of 45 kb upstream of a polymorphic Mhc class II gene in red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus)''. Genomics. vol '''75''', no 1-3. p. 26-34.
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| − | | |
| − | * Glahn JF & Avery ML. (1999). ''Use of Poisson distribution to estimate red-winged blackbird mortality from toxic bait application''. Abstracts of Papers American Chemical Society. vol '''218''', no 1-2.
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| − | * Glassey B & Forbes S. (2003). ''Why brown-headed cowbirds do not influence red-winged blackbird parent behaviour''. Animal Behaviour. vol '''65''', no 6. p. 1235-1246.
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| − | | |
| − | * Grant ND & Sealy SG. (2002). ''Selection of red-winged blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus) hosts by the brown-headed cowbird (Molothrus ater)''. Bird Behavior. vol '''15''', no 1. p. 21-30.
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| − | * Gray EM. (1996). ''Female control of offspring paternity in a western population of red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus)''. Behavioral Ecology & Sociobiology. vol '''38''', no 4. p. 267-278.
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| − | * Hanowski JM, Niemi GJ, Lima AR & Regal RR. (1997). ''Do Mosquito control treatments of wetlands affect red-winged blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus) growth, reproduction, or behavior?''. Environmental Toxicology & Chemistry. vol '''16''', no 5. p. 1014-1019.
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| − | * Homan HJ, Linz GM, Engeman RA & Penry LB. (2004). ''Spring dispersal patterns of red-winged blackbirds, Agelaius phoeniceus, staging in eastern South Dakota''. Canadian Field Naturalist. vol '''118''', no 2. p. 201-209.
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| − | | |
| − | * Hovekamp NR. (1996). ''Intersexual vocal communication in the red-winged blackbird''. Journal of Field Ornithology. vol '''67''', no 3. p. 376-383.
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| − | | |
| − | * Knittle CE, Linz GM, Cummings JL, Davis JE, Jr., Johns BE & Besser JF. (1996). ''Spring migration patterns of male red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus) from two migratory roosts in South Dakota and Minnesota''. American Midland Naturalist. vol '''136''', no 1. p. 134-142.
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| − | | |
| − | * Lee H. (1999). ''Effects of organophosphate insecticide application to the conditioned taste aversion of red-winged blackbirds, Agelaius phoeniceus, Icteridae''. Korean Journal of Biological Sciences. vol '''3''', no 1. p. 41-46.
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| − | * Lipar JL & Ketterson ED. (2000). ''Maternally derived yolk testosterone enhances the development of the hatching muscle in the red-winged blackbird Agelaius phoeniceus''. Proceedings of the Royal Society Biological Sciences Series B. vol '''267''', no 1456. p. 2005-2010.
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| − | | |
| − | * Lipar JL, Ketterson ED & Nolan V. (1999). ''Intraclutch variation in testosterone content of red-winged blackbird eggs''. Auk. vol '''116''', no 1. p. 231-235.
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| − | | |
| − | * Lopez A. (2001). ''Vocal response of male redwing blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus) during simultaneous exposures to digitally remastered conspecific song playback and mounts''. Ohio Journal of Science. vol '''101''', no 1.
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| − | | |
| − | * McGraw KJ, Wakamatsu K, Clark AB & Yasukawa K. (2004). ''Red-winged blackbirds Agelaius phoeniceus use carotenoid and melanin pigments to color their epaulets''. Journal of Avian Biology. vol '''35''', no 6. p. 543-550.
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| − | | |
| − | * McMaster DG & Sealy SG. (1998). ''Red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus) accept prematurely hatching brown-headed cowbirds (Molothrus ater)''. Bird Behavior. vol '''12''', no 3-4. p. 67-70.
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| − | * Olson JM. (2001). ''Ontogeny of catabolic and morphological properties of skeletal muscle of the red-winged blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus)''. Journal of Comparative Physiology B Biochemical Systemic & Environmental Physiology. vol '''171''', no 7. p. 527-542.
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| − | * Olson JM, Ferris DV, Jablonski MS & McNabb FMA. (1995). ''Thyroid development in relation to the development of endothermy in the red-winged blackbird''. American Zoologist. vol '''35''', no 5.
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| − | | |
| − | * Olson JM, McNabb FMA, Jablonski MS & Ferris DV. (1999). ''Thyroid development in relation to the development of endothermy in the red-winged blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus)''. General & Comparative Endocrinology. vol '''116''', no 2. p. 204-212.
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| − | | |
| − | * Ozesmi U & Mitsch WJ. (1997). ''A spatial habitat model for the marsh-breeding red-winged blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus L.) in coastal Lake Erie wetlands''. Ecological Modelling. vol '''101''', no 2-3. p. 139-152.
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| − | * Ozesmi U, Tan CO, Ozesmi SL & Robertson RJ. (2006). ''Generalizability of artificial neural network models in ecological applications: Predicting nest occurrence and breeding success of the red-winged blackbird Agelaius phoeniceus''. Ecological Modelling. vol '''195(1-2, Sp''', p. SI) 94-104, MAY 115 2006.
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| − | * Patricelli GL, Dantzker MS & Bradbury JW. (2006). ''Differences in acoustic directionality in male Red-winged Blackbird vocalizations are related to function in communication''. Journal of Ornithology. p. 1) 225-226, AUG 2006.
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| − | * Prather JW, Ortega CP & Cruz A. (1999). ''Aggressive responses of red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus) toward brown-headed cowbirds (Molothrus ater) in areas of recent and long-term sympatry''. Bird Behavior. vol '''13''', no 1. p. 1-7.
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| − | | |
| − | * Pribil S. (1998). ''Reproductive success is a misleading indicator of nest-site preferences in the Red-winged Blackbird''. Canadian Journal of Zoology. vol '''76''', no 12. p. 2227-2234.
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| − | | |
| − | * Pribil S. (2000). ''Experimental evidence for the cost of polygyny in the red-winged blackbird Agelaius phoeniceus''. Behaviour. vol '''137''', no 9. p. 1153-1173.
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| − | | |
| − | * Pribil S & Picman J. (1996). ''Polygyny in the red-winged blackbird: Do females prefer monogamy or polygamy?''. Behavioral Ecology & Sociobiology. vol '''38''', no 3. p. 183-190.
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| − | | |
| − | * Reed WL, Turner AM & Sotherland PR. (1999). ''Consequences of egg-size variation in the Red-winged Blackbird''. Auk. vol '''116''', no 2. p. 549-552.
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| − | | |
| − | * Reinert SE. (2006). ''Avian nesting response to tidal-marsh flooding: Literature review and a case for adaptation in the red-winged blackbird''. Studies in Avian Biology. vol '''32''', p. 77-95.
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| − | * Sawin RS, Lutman MW, Linz GM & Bleier WJ. (2003). ''Predators on Red-winged Blackbird nests in eastern North Dakota''. Journal of Field Ornithology. vol '''74''', no 3. p. 288-292.
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| − | | |
| − | * Searcy WA. (1996). ''Sound-pressure levels and song preferences in female red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus) (Aves, Emberizidae)''. Ethology. vol '''102''', no 3. p. 187-196.
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| − | * Strausberger BM & Horning ME. (1998). ''Responses of nesting song sparrows (Melospiza melodia) and red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus) to models of parasitic cowbirds and nonthreatening towhees''. Bird Behavior. vol '''12''', no 3-4. p. 71-78.
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| − | * Sullivan H, Linz G, Clark L & Salman M. (2006). ''West Nile virus antibody prevalence in red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus) from North Dakota, USA (2003-2004)''. Vector Borne And Zoonotic Diseases. vol '''6''', no 3. p. 305-309.
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| − | | |
| − | * Teti J, Borland M, Lopez A & McLaren G. (2001). ''Digital recording and analysis of female redwing blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus) vocalizations collected in the field''. Ohio Journal of Science. vol '''101''', no 1.
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| − | | |
| − | * Vierling KT. (1999). ''Habitat quality, population density and habitat-specific productivity of red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus) in Boulder County, Colorado''. American Midland Naturalist. vol '''142''', no 2. p. 401-409.
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| − | * Ward D, Lindholm AK & Smith JNM. (1996). ''Multiple parasitism of the red-winged blackbird: Further experimental evidence of evolutionary lag in a common host of the brown-headed cowbird''. Auk. vol '''113''', no 2. p. 408-413.
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| − | * Weatherhead PJ. (2005). ''Long-term decline in a red-winged blackbird population: ecological causes and sexual selection consequences''. Proceedings of the Royal Society Biological Sciences Series B. vol '''272''', no 1578. p. 2313-2317.
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| − | * Westneat DF. (1995). ''Paternity and paternal behaviour in the red-winged blackbird, Agelaius phoeniceus''. Animal Behaviour. vol '''49''', no 1. p. 21-35.
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| − | * Westneat DF, Hasselquist D & Wingfield JC. (2003). ''Tests of association between the humoral immune response of red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus) and male plumage, testosterone, or reproductive success''. Behavioral Ecology & Sociobiology. vol '''53''', no 5. p. 315-323.
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| − | * Williams CL, Homan HJ, Johnston JJ & Linz GM. (2004). ''Microsatellite variation in red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus)''. Biochemical Genetics. vol '''42''', no 1-2. p. 35-41.
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| − | * Wohlfeld V. (1999). ''Red-Winged Blackbird''. New Engl Rev-Middlebury Ser. vol '''20''', no 3. p. 149-149.
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| − | * Wolfe MF & Kendall RJ. (1998). ''Age-dependent toxicity of diazinon and terbufos in European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) and red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus)''. Environmental Toxicology & Chemistry. vol '''17''', no 7. p. 1300-1312.
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| | + | Red-winged Blackbirds are polygynous, with territorial males defending up to 10 females. However, females frequently copulate with males other than their social mate and often lay clutches of mixed paternity. |
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| − | [[Category:Icteridae]]
| + | When the breeding season is over, Red-winged Blackbirds gather in huge flocks, sometimes numbering in the millions. In some parts of the United States, they are considered to be pests because these flocks can consume large amounts of cultivated grain or rice. This bird's numbers are declining due to habitat loss and the use of poison to prevent this loss of crops. |
| − | [[Category:Birds of Central America|Blackbird, Red-winged]]
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| − | [[de:Rotschulterstärling]]
| + | Despite the similar names, the Red-winged Blackbird is not related to the European Redwing or the Old World Blackbirdthrushes (''Turdidae''). |
| − | [[fr:Carouge à épaulettes]]
| + | }}<noinclude>[[Category:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Transcluded Modules|{{FULLCHAPTERNAME}}]]</noinclude> |
| − | [[lt:Raudonsparnis trupialas]]
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| − | [[ja:ハゴロモガラス]]
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| − | [[fi:Punaolkaturpiaali]] | |
