Pathfinder Wiki - User contributions [en]

AY Honors/Word Processing

2021-09-24T20:25:29Z

MBoismier:

{{HonorLanding
|skill=2
|year=2013
|category=Vocational
|authority=North American Division
|insignia=Word Processing AY Honor.png
|complete_course=true
|master1=Technician
}}

== {{Localize|Overview}}==
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Create documents like a pro by earning this honor. You will master page layout, headers, footers, tables, file organization, and more. These skills will serve your over and over again.
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== {{Localize|The Challenging Part}} ==
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AY Honors/Woodworking/Answer Key

2021-09-24T20:22:49Z

MBoismier:

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Lumber comes from trees, so in order to get lumber, a tree must be cut down. Before a tree can be cut down, it must be grown. Many areas are managed forests, where once the trees have been harvested for lumber, new trees are planted to take their place. Doing so make lumber a sustainable resource. The science of growing trees is called forestry.


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Harvesting of trees is the practice of cutting them down in order to convert them into lumber. There are several approaches to this, including clear cutting and selective cutting.


When a forest is clear cut, all woody plants are removed. The larger ones are cut into 16' sections and used for making lumber. Contrary to popular belief, clear cutting can actually be beneficial to the forest, as it simulates the effect of a natural forest fire. The trees that are planted in the clear cut will receive more light, and thus produce more lumber more quickly. However, the clear cut should be replanted with the same species of trees that were harvested from the area. Clear cutting is often done during a season on several small tracts of land in a larger forest. This staggers the harvest so that it can be more easily sustained over long periods of time.


Selective cutting is the practice of only removing mature trees from a forest. This has a lesser impact on the forest, but it takes longer to produce lumber and it is more labor intensive than clear cutting. Selective cutting preserves other aspects of the forest though, including its beauty, and its role as a wildlife habitat.


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Milling lumber is the process of sawing logs into boards. This is usually done at a saw mill. There are many ways to cut a log into boards, and the method chosen affects the quality of the lumber and the amount of lumber that can be obtained from the log. Quarter sawing produces the highest quality lumber, but it does not produce as much lumber as other methods (such as flat sawing). In quartersawn lumber, the log is first divided into quarters, and then each plank is sawn from that such that the growth rings go through the plank perpendicular to the plank's face.


[[Image:Quartersawn.png|300px|Quartersawn Lumber]]


In flat sawn lumber, All the cuts are made in the same direction. Thus, the growth rings penetrate the board at many different angles. This method of cutting produces the most lumber from a log, but that lumber will be far more susceptible to warping and cupping.


[[Image:Flatsawn.png|320px|Flatsawn Lumber]]


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Curing and Seasoning lumber are two words for the same process. It is the process of drying lumber after it has been milled. When timber is first cut, over 50% of its weight is water. As the lumber dries, it changes shape. If it is dried unevenly, it will warp, twist, and crack (cracking is also called "checking"). This is because as the lumber dries, it shrinks. If it dries unevenly, it will also shrink unevenly. To season lumber, it must be allowed to dry evenly. There are several ways to accomplish this, but the two most common are air drying and kiln drying. After the lumber is milled into rough boards, it is stacked horizontally in layers. Each layer is separated by "stickers" which are small pieces of wood about an inch thick, an inch or two wide, and as long as the stack is deep. Stickers are placed on the floor first, and the first layer of lumber is stacked on top of it. More stickers are placed on top of the first layer directly above the stickers on the floor, and another layer of lumber is placed on them. This is repeated until there is a large stack of lumber. Separating the lumber like this allows air to circulate evenly, and thus, the lumber will dry evenly. Kiln dried lumber is stacked in a kiln (a type of oven) in the same way as air dried lumber.


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The quality of lumber is widely variable. The difference between the wood suitable for making shipping crates and pallets and the wood suitable for making furniture and toys is fairly large. Grading lumber is the process of assigning a quality figure to it - not unlike grading a school paper or a test. Lumber is graded based on the poorest side of the lumber, and on the yield the lumber is expected to produce (that is, how much of the wood can be converted into boards verses how much will be thrown away).


There are four basic grades of lumber, and even these grades have sub-categories. The basic grades are listed here from the highest quality to the lowest quality:


'''FAS ''' is short for "'''F'''irsts '''a'''nd '''S'''econds." Lumber of this grade is at least 83% clear (free from all defects such as stains, splits, worm holes, knots, etc.) on its poor side.


'''No. 1 Common''' is the next grade of lumber. It is often used in furniture making. It must be 67% clear on its poor side.


'''No. 2 Common''' must be at least 50% clear on its poor side. It is often used in cabinet making and in millwork (molding, baseboards, and other trim). This grade of lumber is excellent in applications that will be finished with paint (as opposed to a natural finish).


'''No. 3 Common''' is the lowest grade of lumber. There are two sub-categories called 3A and 3B. 3A must be at least 33% clear, while 3B must be at least 25% sound (rather than clear). 3A is often used for flooring, while 3B often used for making pallets and crates.


References:


[http://www.woodweb.com/knowledge_base/Basic_lumber_grades.html Basic Lumber Grades]


[http://www.woodweb.com/knowledge_base/Understanding_Hardwood_Lumber_Grading.html Understanding
Hardwood Lumber Grading]


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Once lumber has been milled and cured, it is sized. There are three common methods of sizing lumber. The first and most common is dimensional. The most well known of the dimensional sizes is the 2 by 4 (2x4). Other sizes include the 2x6, 2x8, 4x4, etc. Before a 2x4 is sized, it is 2 inches thick and 4 inches wide. The lumber is then planed so that the edges are smooth and the thickness is even. The planing process removes about a half inch of lumber, so the finished 2x4 is really 1.5 inches thick by 3.5 inches wide. It is still called a 2x4 though, because that's much easier than calling it a 1.5 x 3.5.


The second sizing method is known as quartering. Rough sawn lumber is sized in quarter inch increments. A one inch thick, rough sawn plank is called four-quarter, and this is written as 4/4. Rough sawn lumber is also available in 5/4, 8/4, and 10/4 sizes. These are 1.25", 2", and 2.5" thick respectively.


The third sizing method is the board foot method. A board foot of lumber is one inch thick, 12 inches wide, and 12 inches long. In other words, a board foot of lumber contains 144 cubic inches of wood. Even if the plank is not 12 inches wide or one inch thick, it is still sold by the board foot. One way to calculate how many board feet are in a plank is to first calculate the number of cubic inches (width times thickness times length, all in inches) and then divide that by 144.


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'''Pine''' is the most commonly available wood in North America. Its primary advantage is that it is relatively cheap. This is because it grows rather quickly. Another characteristic of pine is that it is soft. This can be both an advantage and a disadvantage. The advantage of a soft wood is that it is easy to work. The disadvantage is that it can break easily; delicate joinery that works fine in hardwoods will not hold up in pine. Most dimensional lumber (i.e., 2x4's) is made from pine.


'''Cedar''' is a beautiful softwood often used for paneling. Because it is also rather aromatic (and its wonderful smell is purported to repel moths), it is most often used for lining closets. It is also a very light wood, so it is used in applications where weight is a concern (such as in the hulls of wooden canoes). The color difference between the sapwood and the heartwood is quite pronounced, and this effect can be exploited for a stunning visual effect. Cedar is also naturally rot-resistant, so it is commonly used as a decking material, or in other outdoor applications. It was once commonly used for making wooden shingles, though it has long since been replaced by modern synthetics which outperform it at a lower cost.


'''Oak''' is a very common hardwood. It is a tough wood that holds up well when stressed. It was often used in shipbuilding because of this toughness. Additionally, oak is fairly workable up until it is seasoned. Seasoned oak is ''very'' hard, which makes it difficult to cut, bore, plane or drive a nail through. This is an advantage in the finished product, but a disadvantage when trying to make something. When using oak, it is best to use unseasoned wood, and let it season once the object has been made.


'''Maple''' is a light colored wood that can be found with highly figured grain. Figured grain is difficult to work with, but makes for a beautiful piece of furniture. Maple is also great for toy making because it does not easily splinter and stands up well to the abuse of even the most destructive of children. Maple is also commonly available, and thus, is relatively cheap for a hardwood.


'''Ash''' is fairly easy to work, and like oak, seasons to a very tough and hard wood. It is the preferred wood for making baseball bats, and is also the wood of choice for making gunwales for wooden canoes. In other words, it stands up well to hard knocks.


'''Walnut''' is a dark hardwood. Its color is one of its chief advantages, and is probably wood most often "copied" by staining lighter, cheaper woods. Walnut also has figured grain and is fairly hard. It holds detail well, so it can be used in making intricate joints. It is also relatively expensive for a native hardwood.


'''Cherry''' is another hardwood that is commonly used in furniture making. Its color starts off as a medium brown and then slowly turns to a dark, beautiful reddish hue over time. It takes a nice finish, and has no need for stain. It is a little cheaper than walnut, but still fairly expensive.


'''Poplar''' is classified as a hardwood, but it is relatively soft (though still harder than pine). Because of its softness, it is easy to work.


'''Elm''' is a hardwood that is highly resistant to splitting. Because if this, it was the only wood used to make the hubs of wooden wagon wheels. It has a highly figured grain that entwines, and tangles itself in all directions - this is what makes it so difficult to split, but it also makes it difficult to plane.


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Technically, no power tools are necessary for woodworking - everything can be done with handtools. Power tools can certainly make the job easier, but they are a relatively recent tool to arrive on the woodworking scene.

=== Handsaws === 
Handsaws are tools used for cutting wood. Handsaws come in many varieties, including the crosscut saw, rip saw, coping saw, tenon saw, backsaw, and dovetail saw. Each has its own special use. A crosscut saw is used for cutting across the grain of a piece of lumber. A rip saw is used for cutting along the grain. A coping saw is used for making curved cuts. A tenon saw is used for cutting tenons and other fine work. A backsaw is commonly used with a miter box and for small cutting jobs. A dovetail saw is used for cutting dovetail joints.


To use a crosscut or a rip saw, place the board on a supported surface at thigh-height (between the knee and hips). Grip the saw with the right hand (assuming right-handedness) and use the left knee to hold the board in place. Align the right shoulder, arm, and hand so that they are in line with the cut to be made. Begin with light strokes, noting that the saw cuts on the push stroke. As the cut progresses, keep an eye on the line, pulling the blade toward it. If this is to be a "finished" cut, you can score a "V" along the line first with a carton knife, and let the blade ride in the V groove. Score another line along the bottom of the board to prevent tear-out.


A saw is sharpened with a triangle file. The teeth of a rip saw (which cuts along the grain) are sharpened perpendicular to the blade. The teeth of crosscut saw are sharpened at an angle. Try to match the angle already ground into the teeth.


Maintain your saws by keeping them dry and sharp. Many tools (including saws) can be kept in great condition by wiping them down with a cloth and oil (or WD40) after each use. Coping saw blades can be obtained cheaply enough that it is easier to replace them than it is to sharpen them.

=== Chisels === 
Chisels can be used for making a variety of cuts in wood, from mortise and tenon joints to dovetail joints. They are often struck with a mallet or a hammer, but sometimes they are pushed by hand (watch for fingers!) to pare a joint or to smooth it. Chisels are also used to remove wood for recessing a hinge. To do this, the outline of the hinge is first scored with a knife, and then the wood is pared away with the chisel.


To cut a mortise, choose a chisel that is as wide as the desired mortise. Mortises should only be cut so that they are parallel to the grain of the wood. Mark the mortise out, and then place the chisel perpendicular to the grain, such that it covers the width of the mortise. Strike it with the mallet. Then move the chisel about an eighth of an inch (2-3mm) farther down the mortise and repeat. Each "bite" of the chisel will go a little deeper. When you get to the end of the mortise, reverse the chisel and take bites in the other direction (still perpendicular to the grain, but heading back toward the other end of the mortise). Continue until the mortise reaches the desired depth. Always cut the mortise first, and then size the tenon to fit.


To sharpen a chisel, hold it at a steady angle and drag it along a whetstone. If you use a grinder, be careful to not overheat the tip of the chisel as this will cause it to lose its tempering. It is better to sharpen them by hand with a whetstone, as it is very easy to overheat the blade with a grinder.


Store chisels in a way that will protect the cutting edge, either by covering them, or placing the edge where it will not come into contact with anything of equal (or greater) hardness than the blade. Like saws, chisels can be wiped down with cloth and oil to keep rust away.

=== Hand Planes === 
{{:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Woodworking Tools/Plane}}

=== Clamps === 
Clamps are used to hold a piece of wood in place while it is being worked, or to hold pieces of wood together after gluing them until the glue cures.


Clamps come in many varieties, including C-clamps and furniture clamps. Some say that it is nearly impossible to own too many C-clamps. When using a C-clamp in wood working be careful to not overtighten it. The clamping surface can easily leave a circular impression on the wood. If you need to get it really tight, place a piece of scrap between the clamping surface and your piece.


Furniture clamps (also called bar clamps) often have padded clamping surfaces, so making unwanted impressions on the wood is avoided. These are used for clamping large boards together, usually edge-to-edge.


Clamps can be periodically wiped down with a cloth and oil to keep rust at bay.

=== Drills, Bits, and Braces === 
Drills, Bits, and Braces are used for boring holes in wood. A brace and bit is the "old-style" cordless drill. It is hand-powered. The brace holds the bit, and the woodworker's hand cranks it, inducing a rotation in the bit. To drill a clean hole with either a brace and bit or a drill and bit, hold the bit perpendicular to the board and start drilling. You can start a pilot hole with a nail or a punch first to keep the bit from wandering. There are two ways to prevent tear-out when boring a hole. The first method is to support the board and drill into the supporting material. For this to work, the board and its support must be firmly clamped together. The second method can be used if you have a bit with a point that is much narrower than the hole's diameter (such as a spade bit, a brad-point bit, or a bit with a screw-lead). Using such a bit, drill through the material until the tip comes through the other side. Then turn the board over and place the bit in this hole. Continue drilling toward the center.

=== Power Tools === 
Power Tools should be used with much care. It is difficult to cut a finger off with a hand saw, but a power saw can do this in an instant, and before the careless operator even feels any pain, a severed finger can drop to the floor. Power tools can greatly speed production of wood projects though, so it's certainly worth having them around. Read the owner's manual carefully before operating any piece of power equipment. Pay special attention to safety features, and do not try to defeat them! Pathfinders below the age of 16 should not use power tools. Remember, power tools are not required for woodworking, they only speed it along.


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A butt joint is the simplest of all joints, formed by butting two pieces of wood together and then joining them. But because glue will not hold to end grain, it is a joint that must be held together by mechanical fasteners such as nails or screws.


[[Image:Butt_joint.png|350px|Butt Joint]]


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[[Image:Dado joint.png|right| Dado Joint ]]
A dado and groove joint is formed by milling a slot (or dado) in one board, and inserting another board into that slot. The width of the dado should be equal to the width of the board that will be inserted into it. The dado is an excellent joint for joining plywood shelves to the upright sides of a bookcase. In this case, the dado should be cut into the side, and the shelf should be inserted into the dado. Such a shelf will support a lot of weight without relying on the strength of a mechanical fastener. A butt joint would likely fail in this situation, with the nail or screw splitting out the top of the shelf.


The dado can also be used in regular lumber as long as the dado runs along the grain - otherwise, any glue used to secure the joint would have to adhere to the endgrain. Plywood presents alternating layers of endgrain and straight grain to all three surfaces of the dado, and there is generally enough straight grain in the joint that gluing it works well. Dado and groove joints can be held together with mechanical fasteners (nails or screws), or without them (assuming enough non-endgrain surfaces in the joint).


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[[Image:dovetail.png|right|300px|Dovetail Joint]]
A dovetail joint is made by making "tails" in one piece of wood, and "pins" in the other. In the diagram here, the tails are made in the board on the left, and the pins are made in the board on the right. This joint is very strong and will only pull apart in one direction. It is often used for making drawers and boxes. When making a drawer, the pins are cut in the drawer front, and the tails are cut into the drawer sides. This will prevent the joint from pulling apart when the drawer is opened. A drawer facing is then glued to the front to hide the joint, or the joint can be modified to hide them inherently (these are called "blind dovetails").


To make the joint, cut the tails first. Lay them out with a bevel gauge, and saw from the edge to the line. Remove the waste with a chisel. Then lay this board on top of the board that will have the pins and line them up. Mark the pins with a knife. Then saw the pins with a dovetail saw (or a backsaw). The waste on either side of the pins can be removed with a saw. The waste between the pins can be removed with a chisel or with a coping saw. Assemble the joint to test it for fit, and pare the joint with a chisel if necessary.


In the illustration, the endgrain is colored orange. When gluing a dovetail joint, don't bother applying any glue to the endgrain surfaces. Note that the top surface of the pins (brown) are not endgrain, nor are the surfaces they mate to on the tails.


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[[Image:Dowel_joint.png|right|Dowel Joint]]
A dowel joint is formed by drilling holes in the two pieces to be joined, and inserting dowels (small wooden rods) into these holes. The dowels are coated with glue prior to insertion. This is most commonly done with butt joints and miter joints, as the addition of the dowel greatly increases their strength by providing gluable surfaces to the joint.


The most difficult aspect of making a dowel joint is lining the holes up on the two pieces of wood and making sure that the holes go in at a 90 degree angle. This can be done more easily with the aid of a doweling jig. A doweling jig resembles a clamp with a guide hole drilled into it. It is clamped to the board which will eventually accept the dowel, and the hole is drilled by inserting the bit into the guide. A doweling jig will ensure that the hole is drilled at a consistent distance from the board's facing edge and that it is made at a 90 degree angle. The woodworker is still required to ensure that when multiple holes are used (recommended to prevent the joint from twisting), they are drilled the same distance apart.


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[[Image:Lap_joint.png|350px|left|Lap Joint]]
A lap joint is made by overlapping two boards. Wood is removed from the joint so that each board contributes about half of the wood in the joint. Lap joints can be made to join boards at a 90 degree angle (as shown), no angle at all (that is, splice two boards into a longer one), or the two boards can form a cross. This joint is ideal when you need to bring two boards together but keep them in the same plane. It is very strong even without mechanical fasteners as there is a lot of gluable surface area in the joint.


The laps can be cut with either a saw, or a with a saw and a chisel. Large lap joints should be cut with only a saw, but they can be trimmed with a chisel. A dovetail saw or a backsaw works well for both cuts.


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[[Image:Miter_joint.png|350px|right|Miter Joint]]


A 90 degree miter joint is formed by cutting the two boards at a 45 degree angle and joining them. The choice of a miter joint is purely aesthetic. Miter joints are easy to cut with a power miter saw, but difficult to cut by hand. A miter box can help, but the angle of the cut must be very nearly perfect, or the joint will either not be 90 degrees, or it will show a gap. The gap can be eliminated by "kerfing in" the joint. Kerfing in a joint is done by clamping the two pieces together and then running a fine-toothed handsaw down the joint. Ideally, the saw should remove wood from both pieces. This procedure can be repeated until the woodworker is happy with the fit, but keep in mind that every time this procedure is performed, the board gets a little shorter. For this reason, it is best to cut the miter joint first, and then cut the piece to length. If both ends of the board are to be mitered, the board should be cut a little long and then tuned to length by kerfing it in.


Miter joints must be reinforced or they will not hold (once again, endgrain comes into play). Usually the pieces are fastened to some underlying structure so that the miter joint is not subjected to stress, nor is it relied upon for structural integrity. In other cases, the joint itself can be reinforced using dowels (as in a dowel joint) or some similar mechanism.


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[[Image:Mortise_tenon.png|250px|right|Mortise and Tenon]]


The mortise and tenon joint is a strong joint used to join two pieces of wood usually at a 90 degree angle. The mortise is a hole cut into one of the pieces, and the tenon is shaped to fit snugly into this hole. The tenon is usually narrower than the rest of the piece that it is cut into. The joint may be glued, pinned, or wedged to lock it in place.


The mortise is usually cut first, and its width is equal to the width of the chisel used to cut it (see the section on chisels). The tenon is then sized to fit the mortise, and it is cut with a tenon saw, dovetail saw, or backsaw. The first cuts are made along the grain and are called the cheek cuts. The final cuts are made across the grain and are called the shoulder cuts. The tenon can be pared with a chisel to tune the fit.


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[[Image:Rabbet.png|200px|right|Rabbet Joint]]


A rabbet joint is very similar to a dado joint, except that the groove is cut at the edge of the board. This groove is called a rabbet. It is also sometimes called a rebate. A rabbet joint is often used for joining the back to a cabinet or bookcase. It can be glued, held on with mechanical fasteners, or both. The rabbet can be cut in either or both pieces to be joined.


A rabbet joint can be made with a table saw or a router. It can also be made with a rabbet plane. The blade of a rabbet plane comes all the way to the edge of the tool so that it can remove wood from the corner of the rabbet.


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Hardboard (also called Masonite) is an engineered wood product made by turning wood chips into long fibers by steaming them. These fibers are then heated and pressed into a solid board. Hardboard is sold in 4'x8' sheets of various thicknesses in the United States. It is an extremely stable material, expanding and contracting very little with changes in temperature and humidity. It is highly homogeneous, having no distinct grain. Because of its lack of grain it behaves very differently as compared to regular lumber.


Hardboard has high bending strength, but has very little structural strength, so it cannot be used in many applications where plywood or regular lumber are more suited. It can be used for building arches, and its strength can be improved by laminating several sheets together. Hardboard is often used as drawer bottoms, or as the back of cabinets, etc.


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From [http://www.wikipedia.com Wikipedia], the free encyclopedia.


Particle board (sometimes called chipboard) is a material manufactured from wood particles (for example, wood chips, sawmill shavings, or even saw dust) and a synthetic resin or other suitable binder, which is pressed and extruded. Particle board is very dense, heavy, and flat. It is used as a cheaper and less durable substitute for solid wood or plywood. Particle board is very prone to expansion due to moisture.


Particle board should not be used in applications where it is likely to get wet. It is generally not used in furniture making unless it is covered with a veneer (or in inexpensive furniture, a vinyl covering similar to wallpaper). It is not generally finished with stain, varnish, or paint, as aesthetics are not high on its list of characteristics. It is, however used in the hidden portions of woodworking projects such as drawer backs and sides.


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From [http://www.wikipedia.com Wikipedia], the free encyclopedia.


Plywood was the first type of engineered wood to be invented. It is made from thin sheets of wood veneer, called plies, which are stacked together with the direction of each ply's grain differing from its neighbors by 90° (cross-banding). The plies are bonded under heat and pressure with strong adhesives, usually phenol formaldehyde resin, making plywood a type of composite material.


A vast number of varieties of plywood exist, tailored for all manner of conditions and uses. Softwood plywood is usually made either of Douglas fir or spruce, pine, and fir. Decorative plywood is usually faced with hardwood, including red oak, birch, maple, lauan (Philippine mahogany) and a large number of other hardwoods.


Plywood production requires a good log, called a peeler, generally straighter and larger in diameter than that required for processing by a sawmill. The log is peeled into sheets of veneer which are then cut to the desired dimensions, dried, patched and glued together to form the plywood panel. The panel can then be patched, resized, sanded or otherwise refinished, depending on the market it was intended to be sold in.


The most common varieties of softwood plywood comes in three, five or seven plies with dimensions of 4 feet × 8 feet. Each ply is 1/8 inch.


A common reason for using plywood instead of plain wood is because plywood is more stable and because it is less prone to change (shrink, twist or warp). Plywood is stronger than particle board and hardboard, and because the outer layers can be made from fine hardwoods, it is often used in furniture making. It is suitable for natural finishing or painting.


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Unfortunately, some layers of plywood often have knots in them, and the knots fall out before the layers are glued together. This leaves a void. In furniture-grade plywood these voids will be confined to the inner layers. In order to finish the edge of plywood, you can either fill these voids with a wood putty, or you can cover the edges with a band of material - typically, a veneer or a thin strip of wood. Some veneers are made expressly for this purpose, and they come with an adhesive on one side. By heating the veneer, the adhesive is activated. When it cools, the adhesive bonds to the edge of the plywood. If you plan to use a natural finish, banding works best, because wood putties and wood tend to take natural finishes unevenly. This results in a splotchy finish where the wood putty stands out rather than concealing the defect. Either method can be used if you plan to finish with paint.


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The first rule of gluing wood joints is that glue does not stick to end-grain. Most woodworking joints were in fact designed to avoid the application of glue to an end-grain surface. Evaluate your joint first, and find two non end-grain surfaces that will come into contact. After making a test fit, apply glue to one of these surfaces. Spread the glue in a thin layer, being careful to not use too much glue. Then clamp the two pieces together. Use enough clamping pressure so that the pieces are held firmly together, but do not use so much force that all the glue is squeezed out of the joint. Once clamped, the pieces should be left alone until the glue sets. Setting times vary from one glue to the next, so read the instructions on the glue container.


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There are thousands of plans available on the Internet, and many of them can be downloaded for free. Others are offered for a fee. You can also find plans in books and in woodworking magazines (although the magazines tend to have more complex plans). Choose plans that are simple. Although the instructor may be an experienced woodworker, the student is often not. Avoid complicated joints such as dovetails and mortise and tenons. Butt joints, dados, and lap joints are within the reach of a 12 year-old, so steer your Pathfinders to projects that use them. Use lots of pine. Pine is relatively inexpensive, and using it makes it a lot easier to start over. It can be heartbreaking to watch a youngster destroy an expensive piece of wood, and the temptation to salvage it (and thus ruin the project) can be overwhelming. Save complicated projects and expensive hardwoods for after the Pathfinder develops some skill.


[[image:Sm_table_complete.jpg|240px|right|Small Table]]


The table described here has been successfully constructed by a group of Pathfinders ranging from Friend to Guide. It is relatively inexpensive, as seven tables can be constructed from a single sheet of plywood, five 8-foot 2x4's, some plywood banding, 28 1/2" #8 woodscrews, seven dozen 1.5" #8 woodscrews, some flat metal brackets, and some 3/8" dowels. Seven is a good number of Pathfinders for two instructors to handle in this honor. More Pathfinders (or fewer instructors) and it is difficult to give them the attention they'll need to execute the project successfully.

=== Preparations by the Instructor === 
The instructor should rip the 2x4's into 2x2's, and perhaps crosscut them into 30" lengths (although this can be left to the Pathfinder). These 2x2's will make the legs of the table, and the instructor should make sure the legs are square (that is, each side should be 1.5" or 1.25" wide - the exact measurement is immaterial so long as it is the same on all four sides).


[[image:Sm_table_parts.jpg|240px|right|Small Table Parts]]


The instructor should also cut the plywood into squares. For seven tables, 14 12"x12" squares (for the bottom and middle shelves) and 7 14"x14" squares should be made (for the tops). These should be made from furniture-grade plywood with a hardwood veneer. Birch veneer works well for this.

=== Cut the corners === 
The Pathfinder should mark the corners of the shelves by measuring in 1 inch from each corner and drawing a line across the corner. If the shelves are square, this should make a perfect 45° angle. Do not cut the corners off the 14"x14" tabletop. Save the corners, as they can be used to correct a common mistake (discussed below).

=== Notch the legs === 
The Pathfinder should then cut two notches in each of the four legs in the three steps shown below:


[[image:Sm_table_cut_legs.jpg|350px|Cutting the Notches]]


'''1:''' Mark a pencil line one inch from the corner edge of the leg. Do this on two adjacent sides.


'''2:''' Measure the width of the plywood and mark where the notches are to be cut with a square. It is better to mark all the legs at the same time, making sure leg bottoms are flush and the notches all line up. Once all the notches have been marked, a notch can be made by cutting two kerfs (saw cuts) through the corner of the leg stopping when the line is reached. You may wish to score the notches with a carton knife before using the saw. Make the first score on the line, holding the knife at a 90° angle. Then make a second score at a steeper angle next to the first score line, but towards the middle of the notch so that the two make a V. Remove wood from the V. This will give you a defined groove for the saw blade to ride in. Pay close attention to ''both'' lines when cutting, and be sure to take the width of the kerf into account when making the cuts. The width of the notch should equal the width of the plywood.


'''3:''' Use a 3/4" chisel and a mallet to remove the wood between the kerfs. Do not try to remove all the wood at once, but rather, remove a quarter inch on the first three passes, and an eighth of an inch on the final passes. Pay attention to the pencil lines.

=== Attach the Shelves=== 
The next step is to attach the shelves to the legs. This can be done using dowels or screws. In either case, drill holes into the leg from the outside, centered on the notches. Put the shelf into the notch, and drill a hole into it, using the hole in the leg as a pilot. If using dowels, use the same sized bit (sized for the dowel, 3/8" recommended). If using 1.5" #8 screws, use a 1/8" bit, and then counter sink the hole in the leg 1/2" to 3/4" deep. The screws can be covered with dowels or with wood putty (but don't use wood putty unless you plan to paint).

=== Correcting Problems === 
If the notches are too wide, use a chisel to shear a ply off the corners that were removed from the shelves and wedge it beneath the shelf. Note that this is a corrective procedure only - it is much more desirable to cut the notches to the proper width. Using this technique pretty much decides that the table will be finished with paint instead of with a natural finish, but it can still come out looking pretty good. If the notches are not wide enough, use a chisel to widen them a bit. Don't overdo it.


If the notch is too wide to be corrected with a single ply from a corner, discard that leg and start over. That's why the legs are made from 2x4's - you can get six legs from a single 2x4, so each leg will run you about 50 cents (in 2005 anyhow).


Once both shelves have been attached to all four legs, the screws can be covered with dowels (if the screws were countersunk) or with wood putty.

=== Fasten the Top === 
Finally, it is time to add the top. The easiest way to do this is by using flat metal brackets. Look for them in the fastener department of the hardware store. Basically, they should be pieces of steel about 3/8 inch wide and 2 inches long, with holes drilled in either end. At least one of these holes should be countersunk, or they should be countersunk on opposite sides of the bracket.


[[Image:Leg_bracket1-4.png|600px|thumb|1. Bore first hole; 2. Overlap second hole; 3. Connect the channels; 4. Attach the bracket]]


<br>


Mill a groove into the top of the leg to accept the bracket. This can be done with a 3/4" spade bit or auger. Drill into the endgrain no more than an eighth of an inch, centered on the leg. Drill a second hole overlapping the first, and make sure the edge of the hole extends over the inside corner of the leg top. If necessary, chisel out a channel between the two holes and then lay the bracket in the channel. The brackets should point towards the center of the table top.


Attach the brackets to the legs using 1.5 inch #8 screws. Make sure that bracket is oriented such that the ''other'' hole will be countersunk when a screw is passed through it into the bottom of the tabletop.


Once the brackets are attached, turn the top upside down (choose the best surface for the top), and place the rest of the table on top of it. Center to the best of your ability. The table top is oversized to hide any "unsquareness" of the rest of the table. If the unit will not lay flat on the table top, mark the underside of the tabletop where the screws are touching it. This can be done by daubing a little wood putty on the screw head. Remove the unit and drill a small hole no more than a quarter inch deep into the underside of the table top. It helps to wrap a piece of masking tape around the drill bit at the desired depth so the woodworker can stop when the tape reaches the wood. Replace the unit on the table top again.


Drive screws through the brackets into the underside of the table. Again, use #8 screws, but remember that the table top is only 3/4" thick. Play it safe and use 1/2" long screws.

=== Finishing === 
The only thing that remains is to finish the plywood edges and paint (or use a natural finish). Use veneer banding for this, following the instructions on the label. Trim the edges of the veneer off with a carton knife or a chisel. Sand the table and apply two coats of paint or stain and varnish.


If this is a first-time project, the Pathfinder is likely to achieve better results with paint than with stain and varnish. If painting, go back over the piece and cover all screw holes and imperfect shelf joints with wood putty. Woodworking masters eschew wood putty, but it is appropriate for the novice. Wood putty and paint can cover a multitude of woodworking sins!

=== Leveling === 
If the table needs to be leveled, place it on a flat surface such as a workbench or a table covered with hard board or cheap plywood. Have one of the longer legs hang off the edge while the other three are in contact with the flat surface. Use a saw to cut the bottom of the offending leg off by laying the blade on the flat surface and drawing it into the leg. This '''will''' mar the surface of the table unless a "flush cut" saw is used, but executed properly, it is by far the easiest way to level a table or a chair.


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The first step in finishing a wood project is to make sure all the surfaces are smooth. This is most commonly done by sanding the surfaces with sandpaper, starting with rougher paper (80-100 grit) and then progressing though successively finer grits (often to 220 grit). Sanding is only necessary if the surface is not already smooth, and some tools (notably planes and cabinet scrapers) will leave a sufficiently smooth surface so that sanding is unnecessary. In fact, sandpaper was patented in the United States in 1834, and woodworking had been going on for millennia prior to that!


The next step in finishing is to remove all dust and dirt from the surface. This can be done by wiping the wood down with a tack cloth, or with a soft cloth which has been wet with mineral spirits. Tack cloth is a soft cloth that has been treated with various finishing compounds (such as mineral spirits and varnish) so that it is slightly sticky or "tacky." It picks up any wood dust it comes into contact with.


Once the surface has been prepared, it can be stained. This can be done by wiping the stain on with a soft cloth (wear vinyl gloves) or with a paint brush. Read the instructions on the can. Staining wood can even out its color. It generally does not fool an experienced woodworker into thinking pine is really walnut or cherry. Staining is optional.


Once the project has been stained (if staining was desired), it can be coated with a finish such as varnish, polyurethane, or tung oil. The purpose of these finishes is to reduce the absorption of moisture. Some finishes do this better than others. Recall that as wood absorbs moisture, its shape changes, so limiting the amount of moisture the project can absorb is a very desirable thing to do.


These finishes are applied again with either a soft cloth (wear gloves!) or a paint brush. You can also buy finishes in spray cans. Several coats are applied, but remember that it is always better to apply several thin coats rather than a few thick ones. Again, read the instructions on the can. Some finishes require that the product dry completely between coats, and others do not.


Make sure the finish is applied in a dust free environment, and do not stir varnish prior to its application, as this will only introduce bubbles which will appear in the finished product. If you do get bubbles, they can be rubbed out between coats with very fine sand paper or with steel wool. The final coat should not be sanded but should rather be polished with a soft cloth.


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'''One way to do this is to create a 1:20th scale model that looks much as a real house does before it has siding and a roof put on it'''. Use balsa wood, a sharp razor blade, and balsa glue.


Create a house plan (keep it simple). You may use typical houseplans that are available in Houseplan magazines and books or create your own.


In order to achieve greatest accuracy, it is recommended that you draw out the scale model to full size grid-paper. Make sure to mark all doorways, windows, entries, and stairs.


Determine what balsa wood sizes will represent each of the standard stud sizes.


'''Another option''' is to build a doll house out of wood. These are usually 1:12 scale models, and make a great gifts! Doll House kits are available for sale online.


'''Purchasing the kit or the balsa wood can be rather expensive'''. Talk with the hobby shop in your town before beginning! They'll probably help you make the wisest financial decisions. This would be a great project to work on as a class or unit!


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Any toys you make can be included in the packages that are often delivered to needy families during the Pathfinder's Can Collecting activity.


[[Image:Toy_tugboat_illustration.png|250px|right|frame|Tugboat]]
'''Tugboat'''<br>
An easy toy to make is a small tug boat. This can be made from two pieces of scrap wood and a dowel - dimensional lumber (2x4's) works great for this. The bottom piece makes the boat's hull and deck, and the top layer makes the cabin. Cut the hull to shape with a coping saw and smooth with a rasp. Before cutting the cabin to its final dimensions, drill the hole for the smokestack. It's a lot easier to drill into a large piece of wood than it is to drill into a small piece. You could also clamp the cabin in a vise for drilling. If desired, bore the hole at a slight angle (about 5°) so the smokestack tilts back. Glue the smokestack dowel into the cabin, and glue the cabin onto the hull. If you use a waterproof glue such as epoxy, the glue joint will be strong enough to not require further reinforcement. Otherwise, reinforce the cabin/hull joint with screws through the bottom of the hull into the cabin. Make sure the screw is well recessed so that it does not scratch the floor (or table) when the tug is dragged around. Optionally, you can drill a small hole straight down through the deck near the front of the boat, and drill a larger hole into the hull from the bottom so that it meets the small hole. Pass a rope through the hole and tie a knot in it to keep it from pulling through the smaller of the two holes. It would be easier to use an eye screw, but this may present a choking hazard to small children. Sand well, and finish with colorful paint.


'''Car'''<br>
Another option is to make Pinewood Derby cars. See the instructions in the [[AY Honors/Pinewood Derby|Pinewood Derby]]


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AY Honors/Woodworking

2021-09-24T20:16:13Z

MBoismier:

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Woodworking is not only an activity practiced by millions of hobbyists, it is also a potential career. Few activities compare to the satisfaction of producing a useful item from unassuming lumber. Learn to love the snick of the handplane as it makes wispy shavings leaving in their wake a smooth board that needs no sanding. Feel the excitement of boring holes with a brace and bit (or a power drill if you must). Pare away wood with a razor sharp chisel as you prepare two boards to join together perfectly. Do this enough, and out pops a table!
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AY Honors/Welding

2021-09-24T20:14:15Z

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AY Honors/Typewriting

2021-09-24T20:08:39Z

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AY Honors/Social Media/Answer Key

2021-09-24T20:03:13Z

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AY Honors/Social Media/Answer Key

2021-09-24T20:01:19Z

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AY Honors/Social Media/Answer Key

2021-09-24T20:00:36Z

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AY Honors/Shorthand

2021-09-24T19:49:05Z

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AY Honors/Shoe Repair/Answer Key

2021-09-24T19:47:00Z

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=== Sole === 
The bottom of a shoe, which supports the wearer's foot, is named the sole. It usually consists of several layers, and is usually a separate piece from the upper shoe (though not always, as in the case of wooden shoes).

==== Insole ==== 
The insole is the interior bottom of the shoe, which sits directly beneath the foot. Many shoes have removable and replaceable insoles, and extra insoles are often added for comfort or health reasons. (To control the shape, moisture, or smell of the shoe, for example.)

==== Mid-sole ==== 
The mid-sole is a layer situated between the in-sole and the out-sole, found in some shoes. Often it will provide cushioning and shape to the in-sole.


[[Image:bristol.zoo.crocshoes.arp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Shoes made from real crocodile skin, in a conservation exhibit at Bristol Zoo, England]]

==== Outsole ==== 
The outsole is the layer in direct contact with the ground. The material of the outsole varies depending on the function, dressiness, and quality of the shoe, but is generally very durable material, since it experiences the most stress. Dressier shoes have leather outsoles; casual or work-oriented shoes have outsoles made of natural rubber or a synthetic imitation. The outsole may comprise a single piece, or may comprise separate pieces of different materials. Often the heel of the sole is rubber for durability and traction, while the front is leather for style. Specialized shoes will often have distinct modifications on this design: athletic cleats have spikes embedded in the outsole to grip the ground.

=== Heel === 
Some shoes have a distinctive raised heel; often this is a separate piece from the outsole and can be replaced. Leather was used in the past, and is still used in some performance tennis shoes, but harder materials are usually more desirable. Plastic, rubber, or polymer materials are now also used. Fortified cork is sometimes used in heels or soles so the shoes are lightweight.

=== Vamp, or upper === 
Any shoe also has an upper part that separates the foot from the air, and helps hold the shoe onto the foot. In the simplest cases, such as sandals or flip flops, this may be nothing more than a few straps for holding the sole in place under the foot. Closed footwear, such as boots, sneakers and most men's shoes, will usually have a more complex upper.

=== Laces === 
A shoelace is a long piece of string or cord that hold a shoe closed. Usually it is attached by being threaded through a series of small holes in the shoe, called eyelets. To aid this, many shoelaces are tipped with small solid plastic bits called aglets.

=== Tongue === 
In some shoes and boots the tongue is a flap-like, usually flexible, part that goes underneath the laces.


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{|
|-
| [[Image:Schusterleisten1.jpg|thumb|250px|Various wooden lasts]]
| [[Image:Goodyear_welt.png|thumb|250px|Goodyear Welt Sole]]
| [[Image:Mckay sewed sole.png|thumb|250px|McKay Sewed Sole]]
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===Hand-turned soles=== 
This type of shoe is built inside-out using a form called a ''last.'' A ''last'' is a foot-shaped tool, traditionally made of wood. After the uppers are made and stitched together, they are removed from the ''last'', turned right-side-out, and the sole is attached. The sole is of one piece - the topside of the sole serves as the insole, and the bottom side serves as the outsole.
===Goodyear welt soles===
In a shoe of this type, the uppers, insole, and midsole are stitched to the outsole. This is the most secure way to attach the sole. The insoles are built into the shoe rather than being inserted after the rest of the shoe has been made. The upper is drawn over the sole and held temporarily while a strip of leather (the welt) is stitched to the upper and inner sole. The sole is hand-stitched through the welt to complete the process. This construction allows multiple sole replacements, extending the life of the footwear.

Because the stitching of the outsole is done completely on the outside of the shoe, this type of sole is easiest to repair.
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===McKay sewed soles=== 
Ten years after the invention of the sewing machine, Gordon McKay introduced a device for machine-stitching a shoe's upper to its sole. In this type of sole, the insole is attached to the upper while it is still on the last using tacks which are clinched over. The outsole is then sewn to the assembly by McKay's machine. The stitching appears on the inside of the shoe, as do the tacks. This type of construction was common for cheap, lightweight shoes.
{{clear}}
====Curved Needle Machine====
The outsole is attached to the upper with a welt. The curve needle machine allows the soles to be stitched through the Goodyear welt without the going through the upper so the shoes can be resoled many times without sewing through the uppers.


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Shoe repair is best taught by an experienced cobbler. It is not really possible to learn this trade by reading a book - it has to be practiced, and to become proficient takes years. The best approach for meeting this requirement (as well as requirements 4 and 5) is to visit a shoe repair shop as described in requirement 8. Bring a pair of shoes that have rips in them so the cobbler can allow you to practice on ''your own'' shoes rather than on his customer's shoes.


Ripped shoes do not necessarily have tears in the canvas or leather, but may have a burst seam. Almost any pair of "throw-away" shoes you still have in your closet will work for this. Depending on the skill you are able to bring to bear on your first attempt, you may end up throwing them away anyhow. Remember that this is a learning process, and your goal is not necessarily to get a wearable pair of shoes out of your effort, but rather, a working knowledge of shoe repair techniques. If you fail on the left shoe, you may succeed on the right. Or you might go through more than one pair of shoes.


It may be possible to build your Pathfinder group's interest in this honor by showing them some shoe repair videos.


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See requirements 3 and 8 for advice.


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See requirements 3 and 8 for advice. Here's another YouTube video from Upside Down Shoe Repair:


{{#widget:YouTube|id=gqo5pRglfrA}}


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Leather used in shoemaking is divided into two categories: upper leather, and sole leather. Upper leather is used for making the uppers, and is thinner, softer, and more pliable than sole leather. Sole leather is generally made from the hide of a fully-grown cow, taken from the thicker parts of the animal's skin. Upper leather is taken from calves, goats, and other smaller animals with thinner skin.


Back when this honor was originally written, leather was usually tanned by soaking it in a bath with tree bark (usually hemlock or oak). An astringent acid would leach out of the bark, and this acid is what would convert an animal skin into leather, in a process known as ''tanning''.


Sole leather was most often tanned using oak bark. Oak-tanned leather has a light, creamy tan color. It is both firm and flexible.


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There are many factors to consider when selecting a pair of shoes, including, '''fit''', '''comfort''', '''function''', '''quality''', '''cost''', and even '''moral considerations'''. When considering any of these factors, it is incumbent upon the Christian to practice good stewardship.

===Fit and Comfort=== 
Possibly the most important factor to consider when selecting a shoe is that it fits properly. Improperly fitted shoes can cause discomfort, soreness, or even injury. Shoes should be comfortable. It is irresponsible to sacrifice comfort for the sake of style, though there are exceptions to this (i.e., the shoe will not be worn for very long and the wearer has no other option, such as serving as the member of a wedding party).

You should have your feet measured every time you buy shoes if they are still growing. Even when they stop growing, it's still a good idea to have them measured occasionally, as their shape may change. There are two parameters that specify the shoe size: length, and width.
====Length==== 
Shoe size in the United States and Canada is based on the length of the last, measured in inches, multiplied by 3 and minus a constant. This constant differs for shoes intended for men, women and children.


:<math>\mbox{male shoe size} = 3*\mbox{last length}-22</math>


Women's sizes are almost always determined with the "common" scale, in which women's sizes are equal to men's sizes plus 1.5 (for example, a men's 10.5 is a women's 12).


In the less popular scale, known as the "standard" or "FIA" (Footwear Industries of America) scale, women's sizes are men's sizes plus 1 (so a men's 10.5 is a women's 11.5).


:<math>\mbox{female shoe size (common)} = 3*\mbox{last length}-20.5</math>
:<math>\mbox{female shoe size (FIA)} = 3*\mbox{last length}-21</math>


Children's sizes are equal to men's sizes plus 12.33. Thus girls' and boys' sizes do not differ, even though men's and women's do.


:<math>\mbox{child shoe size} = 3*\mbox{last length}-9.67</math>

For the international market, the [[w:ISO 9407|ISO 9407]] standard is used for specifying shoe length.
====Width==== 
Some manufacturers offer shoes of different width for the same foot length. Such shoes are then also labelled according to the width or girth of the widest part of the foot (typically measured directly behind the toes with the subject standing on both feet and wearing socks or hose).


In the Mondopoint system, the shoe size label can state in addition to the length also the width of the mean foot for which the shoe is suitable, both measured in millimetres.


A number of other ad-hoc notations for width or girth are also used. Examples include (each starting with the narrowest width):


* AAAA, AAA, AA, A, B, C, D, E, EE, EEE, EEEE
* 4A, 3A, 2A, A, B, C, D, E, 2E, 3E, 4E
* N, R, W


None of these designations are formally standardized. The exact foot width for which these sizes are suitable can vary significantly between manufacturers. The A-E width indicators used by some US and UK shoe manufacturers are typically based on the width of the foot, and common step sizes are 1/4 inch (6 mm) or 3/16 inch (5 mm).

===Function=== 
The next consideration when selecting a shoe is the activity to be performed when wearing the shoe. You would not wear high heels on a backpacking trip, nor would you wear flip-flops to a wedding. Different shoes have different purposes, though thankfully, some are multi-purpose. Here is a list of some of the types of shoes available:
* Dress shoes
* Casual shoes
* Athletic shoes
* Running shoes
* Hiking boots
* Climbing shoes
* Paddling shoes
* Work boots
* Steel-toed boots
* Snow boots
* Golf shoes
* Bowling shoes
* Slippers

===Quality=== 
If your feet have stopped growing, it makes sense to buy the best quality shoes that you can afford. High quality shoes will not only last longer than cheap ones, they are less expensive in the long run because they will not have to be replaced as often. A low-quality shoe can also make your feet sore or even cause injury by not providing proper arch or ankle support.


If you are buying shoes for a person who is growing quickly, you should still seek a quality shoe, but at this point the goal is match the expected lifetime of the shoe to the amount of time it will fit.

===Cost=== 
Cost is also a very important consideration. Some shoes are very expensive, not because of their high quality, but because of the name attached to them. Though high quality shoes are usually more expensive than low-quality shoes, this does not mean that all high-priced shoes are also high-quality.

===Moral considerations=== 
In the late 1990's several shoe manufacturers found themselves embroiled in controversy after it was revealed that they were exploiting sweatshop labor in third-world countries. There are many people who boycott various corporations because of such practices, and there are many people who patronize companies that commit themselves to respecting human rights.


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You should be able to find a shoe repair shop in the Yellow Pages (or other business directory) under "Shoe Repair."


Shoe repair shops are often family-owned businesses, so the chances of speaking to the owner when you enter the store (or call on the phone) are pretty good. It would be better to approach the owner in person rather than calling, as that gives you a better opportunity to present yourself. Wear a class A uniform when you go there to ask permission to observe, and be ready to explain how many Pathfinders will be with you. Let the store owner select a time and date for the five-hour visit. The store owner may also be willing to instruct this honor, so it would be a good idea to make contact before you get started.


Your visit to the work shop will be a good opportunity to meet requirements 3, 4, and 5, but you should probably bring some shoes that need these repairs with you. The owner will certainly not want you experimenting on his customer's shoes! Offer to pay for any materials you use when repairing your shoes.


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Keep your shoes looking their best by using a cedar shoe tree. These are foot-shaped blocks of cedar wood that fit inside the shoe. Cedar absorbs moisture and salt which can damage your shoes. Clean shoes right away when they become dirty. There are four basic steps in caring for smooth leather shoes: clean, condition, polish, and weatherproof.
;Clean:
First you should lay some newspapers out on your work area and remove the laces from the shoes. Brush the dirt off with a soft brush, and then apply saddle soap or leather cleaner to the shoe with a soft cloth (you can use a shoe shine cloth or an old T-shirt). Work it in, and then start to shine the shoe.
;Condition:
Once the shoe has been cleaned, you can apply a conditioner. You can buy cleaners with conditioners in them, but you'll get better results using a separate conditioner. The conditioner is worked into the leather just as the cleaner was, and it helps to moisturize the leather to prevent cracking. In dry climates, you may need to condition your shoes more often.
;Polish:
Most of us are familiar with the liquid shoe polish products that come in a bottle with a brush built into the lid. These polishes work well enough, but the polish only barely penetrates the surface of the leather and has to be re-applied frequently. It is better to use a show paste, but best to use a shoe cream. Whichever you choose, you will have to match the color of the product to the color of the shoe. Test in an inconspicuous area to make sure that you have a good color match. Apply shoe cream with a soft cloth and rub it in well. Then let it dry thoroughly. Once dry, you can go over it again with a soft cloth to bring out the shine.
;Weatherproof:
If you are more interested in protecting the shoes than in making them look good, you can use beeswax to weatherproof them. Beeswax will change the look of the shoe, but it is most excellent for keeping the water out. This would be a good choice for work or hiking boots. For dress shoes, you will want to use a spray-on product which goes on invisibly. It will protect your shoes from incidental contact with water, but you should not rely on this stuff for wading through puddles.


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==References== 
*[http://podiatry.curtin.edu.au/shoo.html Curtin Department of Podiatry] Hand-turned soles.
*[http://www.knappstore.com/features.asp Knappstore.com] Explanation of Goodyear welt soles.
*[http://moas.atlantia.sca.org/topics/shoe.htm Shoe Links]
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AY Honors/Radio Electronics/Answer Key

2021-09-24T19:35:13Z

MBoismier:

AY Honors/Radio Electronics/Answer Key

2021-09-24T19:33:40Z

MBoismier:

AY Honors/Radio Electronics

2021-09-24T19:30:45Z

MBoismier:

{{HonorLanding
|skill=2
|year=1938
|category=Vocational
|authority=General Conference
|insignia=Radio_Electronics_Honor.png
|complete_course=true
|master1=Technician
}}

== {{Localize|Overview}}==
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AY Honors/Radio - Advanced

2021-09-24T19:29:35Z

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|insignia=Radio_Advanced.png
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AY Honors/Radio - Advanced/Answer Key

2021-09-24T19:27:13Z

MBoismier:

AY Honors/Radio/Answer Key

2021-09-24T19:19:18Z

MBoismier:

AY Honors/Journalism/Answer Key

2021-09-24T19:01:17Z

MBoismier:

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===Lead Paragraph=== 
The beginning of a news or feature story is called "the lead."
The lead is typically a single paragraph -- occasionally a single sentence -- that summarizes the most important information that the story will convey.
In addition to quickly relaying information, a good lead grabs the reader's attention and convinces them to keep reading.


Occasionally, a story will not begin with the most important information it contains; such information may be relegated to the end of the first paragraph, or even to the second paragraph.
This is called "burying the lead."
A buried lead can be a powerful, dramatic technique to draw readers in -- or a glaring signal to readers that the writer doesn't know what is important about the topic their story covers.


In addition to drawing the reader into the story, a lead -- like all journalistic writing -- must: be clearly written, be free of typographical errors, and use grammar and language appropriate for the venue and audience.

===Headlines=== 
Text publications use headlines to grab readers' interest and convey the subject of a story, but they must do so even more succinctly than the lead: seldom is a headline more than a single line -- and frequently no more than a handful of words.


While the writer of a story writes its lead, they don't usually provide the headline that gets published.
Story writers often recommend a headline for their story, but these are largely only seen by the publication staff.
Most sizeable publications employ staff specifically to generate headlines after reading the story.
At smaller publications, the editor writes the headlines.


In his textbook on editing, journalist and journalism professor Tom Lieb says that all headlines fundamentally seek either to inform or grab attention.


Informative headlines quickly summarize news, allowing readers to receive facts while they determine which stories to read in detail.
Generally, Lieb says, informative headlines should follow a subject-verb-object model.
Lieb says such headlines should: be active, rather than passive; avoid most auxiliary/"helping" verbs and prepositions, because the reader can immediately figure these out on their own; and be written in present or future tense, to emphasize that the news either is current or addresses something that has not yet occurred.


Attention-grabbing headlines tend to be used for feature articles that are interesting but not of vital importance.
They rely on a variety of literary and/or poetic techniques, such as rhyme, puns, and allusion.
Unlike informative headlines, attention-grabbing headlines may not have a subject, Lieb says.


Regardless of the type of headline, they are specially formatted.
Headlines are always in a different font than that of the story itself. Headlines were historically written in title case, or upstyle, where every word is capitalized except articles and short prepositions.
Most publications today use sentence case, or downstyle, where only the first word and proper nouns are capitalized.


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Any of these topics should lend itself equally well to a news or feature story.
Because requirement 6 is suited to a feature story, however, Pathfinders who want to get experience with a variety of journalistic writing styles should write a news story to fulfill this requirement.


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A journalist must, first and foremost, understand the subject they write a story about. The journalist must also understand their audience so they can decide what information to convey to that audience throughout the course of their story.
The story's lead should convince the audience to read the entire story.
Each paragraph in the story should build on information that preceded it and should also convince the reader to continue reading. Once the story has conveyed all of the information of relevance, it should end.
This method of organizing a story is called the Inverted Pyramid.


For news stories, the journalist should use the Inverted Pyramid so that readers who do not have time to read the entire story can stop at any point with the confidence that they received the most important of the information that the story contains.
In the case of print journalism, the Inverted Pyramid also ensures that any part of the story, or copy, that the editors don't have room to include in the published version is the least important.


For feature stories, especially literary non-fiction, journalists have more latitude to use descriptive and colorful language for the purpose of leaving the reader with a vivid picture and to help maintain their interest in the story.
Journalists must take care not to alter or misrepresent facts, however.


Regardless of the kind of story, a journalist must write the story using the correct and consistent style.
Which style is 'correct' is determined by the publication the journalist writes the story for, and publications of any appreciable size will formally define their style.
In North American news writing, the Associated Press, or AP, style is widely used and many newspapers either use it unchanged, or use it as the basis of their style.
AP style is frequently updated and is published as the book The Associated Press Stylebook and Libel Manual.
A publication that hires a journalist on a staff will provide the style guide.
Journalists who contact a publication about submitting a freelance story should specifically inquire about the style guide.


A style guide addresses grammar, spelling, and word usage, particularly for cases that have confused their journalists in the past.
The style guide should identify the publication's audience, as well, so that the journalist knows what kinds of information need to be included in the story and what does not.
The AP manual also identifies reference resources that its writers are to rely in as sources of facts about particular kinds of information.
For example, it says which dictionary to use for spelling, except for those cases where the AP style guide overrides that dictionary.


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In grammar, the voice (also called gender or diathesis) of a verb describes the relationship between the action (or state) that the verb expresses and the participants identified by its arguments (subject, object, etc.).
When the subject is the agent or actor of the verb, the verb is in the active voice.
When the subject is the patient, target or undergoer of the action, it is said to be in the passive voice.


For example, in the sentence:


:''The cat ate the mouse.''


the verb "ate" is in the active voice, but in the sentence:


:''The mouse was eaten by the cat.''


the verbal phrase "was eaten" is passive.


In a transformation from an active-voice clause to an equivalent passive-voice construction, the subject and the direct object switch grammatical roles.
The direct object gets promoted to subject, and the subject demoted to an (optional) complement.
In the examples above, the mouse serves as the direct object in the active-voice version, but becomes the subject in the passive version.
The subject of the active-voice version, the cat, becomes part of a prepositional phrase in the passive version of the sentence, and could be left out entirely.

Active verbs are generally preferred to passive verbs.
One clue for determining if a sentence is active or passive is the presence of a 'to-be'' verb (such as is, was, were, are, be). If one is found, the sentence is likely to be passive.
To change a sentence from passive to active, figure out who or what is performing the action specified by the verb, and see if you can rearrange the sentence to make the "actor" the subject.
===Examples=== 
The Pathfinder is encouraged to come up with his own examples, but we provide a few for inspiration:
{|border=1 cellspacing=1 cellpadding=5 width=90%
|-
! Passive Voice || Active Voice
|-
| The Journalism honor was earned by Johnny.
| Johnny earned the Journalism honor.
|-
| Our campfire was built by the Companion class.
| The Companion class built our club's campfire.
|-.
| The Explorers were taught Knot Tying by the Guides.
| The Guides taught Knot Tying to the Explorers.
|-
| Susan was rescued by the lifeguard.
| The lifeguard rescued Susan.
|}


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Story writing guidelines are available free from the following Seventh-day Adventist publishers:


: '''Pacific Press Publishing Association'''
: 1350 North Kings Road
: Nampa, ID 83687
: Phone: 208-465-2500
: Fax: 208-465-2531
: http://www.pacificpress.com/index.php?pgName=newsOLFPTsub


: '''Review and Herald Publishing Association'''<br>
: 55 West Oak Ridge Drive<br>
: Hagerstown, MD 21740


With the advent of the web, most publishers post story writing guidelines on their website. Finding several of these webpages and studying them seems a reasonable update to this requirement.


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These ideas are almost exclusively suited for feature stories.
Pathfinders who want to write a news story while obtaining this Honor should do so for requirement 3, instead.


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When a Pathfinder considers which publication to write a story for, he or she should keep in mind that Seventh-day Adventist publications exist at all levels within the global church, and for a variety of audiences -- including non-Adventists.
Seventh-day Adventist print publications tend to be printed in magazine format, even if they are actually bi-weekly or monthly newspapers.


Take North America, for example.
The General Conference publishes the Adventist Review and Adventist World.
Various North American Division unions publish magazines, e.g. Atlantic Union Conference's The Gleaner or Southern Union Conference's Southern Tidings.
Individual Adventist institutions often produce their own publications as well.
For example, several academies in the Columbia Union Conference write newsletters that cover major events at their school; while those schools frequently published and circulated these newsletters in the past, they are now included in the Union's publication, Visitor.
Adventist academies and colleges generally have a student newspaper, and many churches also have newsletters, which contain information of interest to the local congregation.
Some of these publications exist both online and in print, while others only get published in one medium.


Not all Seventh-day Adventist publications specifically target Seventh-day Adventists.
The magazine Liberty, for instance, targets issues of religious freedom in the United States and is sent by the church to all members of Congress.
Various healthcare organizations affiliated with the Seventh-day Adventist church may generate publications for readers in their area.
The magazine Listen encourages children and young adults to live a drug- and alcohol-free life; it regularly features stories about non-Adventists, and focuses on an Adventist message without limiting its audience to Adventists.


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This is now going to be an email as almost anything you write will be submitted electronically.


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Those who want to pursue a career in the field of journalism from the time they enter the workforce are best served by studying the subject at the undergraduate level.
Curricula for such college programs typically require that students take courses in mass media, communications theory, communications law, ethics, newswriting, feature writing, non-fiction writing, persuasive writing, desktop publishing, online publishing, statistics, computer-assisted reporting, and editing.
Journalism degree requirements typically also include at least one practicum/internship.
Schools that offer undergraduate degrees in the field of journalism frequently require the student to obtain a second major, e.g. a journalism student might also study business if they want to write for business media or religion if they want to write for religious media.


Within the Seventh-day Adventist educational system in North America, Andrews University, Pacific Union College, Southern Adventist University, Southwestern Adventist University, Union College (Lincoln, Nebr.), Walla Walla University and Washington Adventist University all offer an undergraduate degree either in journalism proper or in communications with a concentration/emphasis in journalism; most offer journalism as a minor area of study, as well.
La Sierra University's Department of English and Communication offers some journalism courses -- but neither a degree nor a concentration in the subject.
A multitude of public and private universities in North America offer similar courses and degrees.


Graduate degrees in journalism exist, though almost exclusively outside the Seventh-day Adventist education system.
Many professional journalists do study journalism at the graduate level, and degrees are offered both at the masters and doctoral level.


A Pathfinder need not wait until college to begin testing the waters of the pool that is journalism, however: many high schools -- and some middle schools -- sponsor a student newspaper published on a weekly to monthly basis.
And while locally-owned newspapers are much less common than they were a generation ago, some accept adolescent-written stories and articles; and many newspapers even publish a for-youth-by-youth section once or twice a week.


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* beat writer/news writer
* broadcaster
* copyeditor/proofreader
* editor
* fact checker
* freelance author
* headline writer
* layout
* photojournalist
* publisher
* blogger
* internet publisher


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==References== 
* The Associated Press Stylebook and Libel Manual (Associated Press)
* Editing for Clear Communication (Thom Lieb)
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AY Honors/Internet - Advanced/Answer Key

2021-09-24T18:57:30Z

MBoismier:

AY Honors/Internet/Answer Key

2021-09-24T18:45:49Z

MBoismier:

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A vast collection of many independent, inter-connected computer networks that use the TCP/IP protocols and that developed from ARPANet of the late '60s and early '70s. "The Net," is a worldwide system of computer networks providing reliable and redundant connectivity between disparate computers and systems by using common transport and data protocols.


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Though ''World Wide Web'' (or simply Web for short) is a term frequently used (incorrectly) when referring to "The Internet", it has two major meanings: First, loosely used: the whole constellation of resources that can be accessed using Gopher, FTP, HTTP, telnet, USENET, WAIS and some other tools. Second, the universe of hypertext servers (HTTP servers), more commonly called "web servers", which are the servers that serve web pages to web browsers.


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A site on the World Wide Web where any number of computer users can type in messages to each other (chat) in real time, creating an online conversation. These messages usually appear on an area of the screen next to the user’s nickname or handle (your online nickname or the name you go by in a chat room). Most chat rooms have a particular topic (which you are expected to discuss) but there are some that are purely for meeting other people.
Beginning in the 2003, chat rooms began to give way to social media platforms such as MySpace, then later Facebook, Twitter Instagram, Snapchat, and Tiktok.


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To copy a file from a remote computer to your computer. There are a few methods of doing this on the Internet. HTTP, FTP and e-mail attachments are the most common. This term is also used when referring to moving pictures from a camera or other image device to a local computer.


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To move a digital file (such as a media file) from a local system to a server where it is stored for others to access or later retrieval. For example, web pages must be "uploaded" to a web server for them to be viewed on the World Wide Web.
The terminology for "upload" and "download" comes from the days of satellite communications. When an earth-bound terminal send data to the remote computer (the satellite), it was uploaded, as the direction of data travel was up. When the terminal received data from the satellite, it was downloaded, as the directin of data travel was down.


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One or more files (pages) stored on a computer (a "server") that can be accessed via the Internet. Every website has a "home page", which is generally designed as the file visitors first see when coming to the site and which gives an idea of the site's contents. All files on a website usually contain textual or graphical "links" that can be clicked using an input device such as a mouse to move to other files, either within the site or on another one.


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Email is similar to personal letters, only a lot faster. Email is used to send messages via your computer to friends and acquaintances around the world. Requires a computer, email software, an email account through an Internet Service Provider (ISP) and a modem. Technically, email (electronic mail) is the exchange of computer-stored messages by telecommunication.
Most email messages usually contain text, but you can also send non-text files, such as graphic images and sound files as attachments. Email accounts for a large percentage of the total traffic over the Internet. An email address is easily identified by the '@' symbol, for instance webmaster@pathfindersonline.org, making identification of the domain it's attached to much easier - in this case pathfindersonline.org


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Throughout this honor, the term “virus” represents the traditional virus, as well as trojans, worms, and other malicious code.


;Traditional virus: In computer security technology, a virus is a self-replicating program that spreads by inserting copies of itself into other executable code or documents. Thus, a computer virus behaves in a way similar to a biological virus, which spreads by inserting itself into living cells. Extending the analogy, the insertion of the virus into a program is termed infection, and the infected file (or executable code that is not part of a file) is called a host.


;Trojan: named after the Trojan horse used by the rescuers of Helen of Troy. A Trojan is a computer program that disguises itself as a useful software application that is actually used to gain access to your computer.


;Worm: A computer worm is a self-replicating computer program. It uses a network to send copies of itself to other nodes (computers on the network) and it may do so without any user intervention. This is due to the poor security the computers infected have. Unlike a virus, it does not need to attach itself to an existing program. Worms almost always cause at least some harm to the network, if only by consuming bandwidth, whereas viruses almost always corrupt or modify files on a targeted computer.


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All are methods / techniques for reading email.
;Webmail: Webmail is a web application that allows users to read and write e-mail using a web browser. Examples: Gmail is the most common webmail in use today. Hotmail.com, yahoo.com and many other online services offer you the option to view your email from their website. This is "webmail."


;POP3 mail: Post Office Protocol 3. A protocol that provides a simple, standardized way for users to access mailboxes and download messages to their computers. Examples: Outlook Express, Outlook, Eudora, Mozilla Thunderbird*


;IMAP: Internet Message Access Protocol'. IMAP is a method of distributing e-mail. It is different from the standard POP3 method in that with IMAP, e-mail messages are stored on the server, while in POP3, the messages are transferred to the client's computer when they are read. Thus, using IMAP allows you to access your e-mail from more than one machine, while POP3 does not. This is important because some email servers only work with some protocols. Example: AOL is an IMAP mail provider, though they also offer webmail services.*

These examples are accurate as of 10/2005. Please check Google.com or other search service to verify the accuracy of these examples currently.


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A program used to view, download, upload, surf or otherwise access documents (pages) on the World Wide Web. Browsers can be text-based meaning they do not show graphics or images but most however are text and graphical based. Browsers read "marked up" or coded pages (usually HTML but not always) that reside on servers and interpret the coding into what we see "rendered" as a Web page. Examples: Microsoft Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, Google Chrome, and Apple Safari are examples of Web browsers.


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Internet Relay Chat. A live chat area of the Internet in which real-time conversations among two or more people take place via special software. Each specific IRC channel begins with a # and is dedicated to a different area of interest. IRC is considered another part of the technology of the Internet the same way FTP, Telnet and the Web are.


An instant messenger is a client which allows instant text communication between two or more people through a network such as the Internet.


Examples include Windows Messenger, AOL Instant Messenger, ICQ client, Yahoo Messenger, and Jabber, as well as software programs that allow you to talk to friends on multiple “messenger” platforms simultaneously.


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Video or audio transmitted over a network that users can begin to play immediately instead of waiting for the entire file to download. Typically a few seconds of data is sent ahead and buffered in case of network transmission delays. (Although some data is buffered to the hard drive, it is written to temporary storage and is gone once viewing is complete.) RealMedia, QuickTime and Windows Media are the most common streaming formats.


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Internet search engines (e.g. Google, Bing) help users find web pages on a given subject. The search engines maintain databases of web sites and use programs (often referred to as "spiders" or "bots") to collect information, which is then indexed by the search engine. Similar services are provided by "directories," which maintain ordered lists of websites, e.g. Yahoo!


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A computer program designed to detect and respond to malicious software, such as viruses and worms. Responses may include blocking user access to infected files, cleaning infected files or systems, or informing the user that an infected program was detected. Such tools should be included as part of the computing systems environment that the web services are delivered from. Examples include Norton Antivirus, McAfee Antivirus, Trendmicro Antivirus. Online FREE antivirus tools includes Trendmicro's Housecall, and freea-v.com {{ref|antivirus}}.


;Note: Many of these companies also offer "Internet Security Suites" that assist the user in also blocking and removing trojans, worms, malware, and other malicious code.


1. {{note|antivirus}} These software programs are leaders in antivirus technology as of 10/2005. Please check with online resources or local computer/office supply stores for the latest versions and programs available.


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A system designed to prevent unauthorized access to or from a private network. Firewalls can be implemented in both hardware and software, or a combination of both. Firewalls are frequently used to prevent unauthorized Internet users from accessing private networks connected to the Internet, especially intranets. All messages entering or leaving the intranet pass through the firewall, which examines each message and blocks those that do not meet the specified security criteria.


Examples include: ZoneAlarm, Microsoft Firewall, Norton Firewall, and many other free and for-pay packages.


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Include date/events surrounding its origin, the major landmark events, the birth and growth of web browsers (such as Mosaic, Netscape, Internet Explorer), and what it is doing today. Remember, this is not a history of computers, but rather a brief history of the Internet. You should list at least 2 online resources from which you found information relevant to your report.
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If you choose this option, you will need to present the same information as in option a. It's OK to use notecards during the oral presentation so that you can follow your outline and not have to memorize dates and other facts.


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*Opening an email attachment which was sent by an unknown contact.
*Clicking on a "pop-up" ad in a web page.
*Downloading from the Internet any file that contains a virus.


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The authors of virus and anti-virus programs are in a continual game of cat-and-mouse. Virus authors are constantly figuring out new ways to get around anti-virus programs, and anti-virus programs are continually updated to thwart the new viruses. The most successful virus programs are the ones most recently developed. If you do not keep your anti-virus software program up-to-date, your computer is vulnerable to the newest viruses.


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We might share a file to our friends or family through an email or device without knowing that the file contains virus. The virus might damage our friend's or family's computer or even thumb drive that we use to share files that might contain virus.


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Viruses can damage your files in the computer including software. The damaged software contains a copy of the virus, and can then spread to other computers. Many viruses will consume computing power on the host, bogging it down and making it unresponsive. They can attempt to infect other machines over the network, consuming the network's bandwidth and slowing down the Internet connection for all other users in the building (even computers that are not infected).


Many viruses completely take over the computer they infect and can be remotely controlled by the attacker. These attackers can then use the computer to send spam, or mount a Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attack against their target's web server or computer network. Sometimes these viruses record keystrokes on the infected computer so that they can capture usernames, passwords, and bank account numbers. This information can then be forwarded to the attacker who can either use the information or sell it to someone else.


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An agreement ready to sign has been prepared for you on the third page of the pdf of the Internet Honor requirements on the Pathfinders website:
http://www.pathfindersonline.org/pdf/ayhonors/internet_a.pdf


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To save paper, it is recommended that rather than printing hard-copies of web pages, that the Pathfinder open the three web pages in separate tabs in the browser. A tab can be opened usually by right-clicking on the link and selecting the "Open page in another tab" option. In Firefox, clicking the link with the center mouse button (or using both the left and right buttons at the same time) will open the page in a new tab. Once three tabs have been opened, the instructor can check that the requirement has been met on-screen, without printing anything.


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*i. http://www.biblegateway.com is a great online bible resources
*ii. http://www.bible.com is another great Bible site with many versions in multiple languages.
*iii. There are thousands of quality Adventist websites, many of them referenced at http://www.plusline.org. Quality sites of interest to young Adventists include:
** http://www.clubministries.org
** http://www.adventist.org
** http://www.guidemagazine.org
** http://www.kidsbibleinfo.com


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*i. Please use safe sites to download from, such as [http://download.com CNET’s download.com]
church websites such as http://plusline.org and http://adventist.org


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#Do not reply to unknown emails or Spam. You’re simply verifying that yours is a “real” email address and you will immediately receive even more junk email.
#Do not open emails with attachments unless you are SURE that they’re okay, and that your antivirus program is fully updated (most are auto-updated these days).
#Report any material sent to you in email that is unsafe or that you feel breaks God’s laws.
#Never respond to "unsubscribe" directions in a spam or UCE (unwanted commercial email) message.
#Keep your computers operating system patches up to date. If you're using Windows, do this from the MS Windows Update site using the Windows Update function.


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:“Finally, brothers, whatever is true, whatever is noble, whatever is right, whatever is pure, whatever is lovely, whatever is admirable——if anything is excellent or praiseworthy——think about such things.” Philippians 4:8


Some questions to guide a small group discussion on this text:
#What do you think the writer, the apostle Paul, would say this text meant for internet users today?
#What do you think God had in mind when he asked Paul to write down this text?
#What are some things on the internet that you make use of that match (are consistent with) this Bible text?
#What are some of the things that are on the internet that do not match (are inconsistent) with this Bible message?
#Why do you think this text is important to Christians today?
#What are some ways that we as a club can help each other apply this text to our daily lives?
#What do you think are some ways we can live lives that match (are consistent) with this text?


[[Category:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Do at home|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]
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AY Honors/Engineering/Answer Key

2021-09-24T18:33:48Z

MBoismier:

AY Honors/Electricity/Answer Key

2021-09-24T18:29:57Z

MBoismier:

AY Honors/Electricity/Answer Key

2021-09-24T18:29:32Z

MBoismier:

AY Honors/Electricity/Answer Key

2021-09-24T18:29:00Z

MBoismier:

AY Honors/Computers - Advanced/Answer Key

2021-09-24T18:21:05Z

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A word processing program assists the user in creating letter, reports, papers, and other documents. Word processor software has filled the role that used to be assigned to a typewriter. However, a word processor can do a variety of additional tasks, including bold, italics, and underline; spell & grammar check; templates for a variety of advanced documents such as FAX, resume, and tables/forms; formatted tables, image import, Wordart, columns, and more.


Many word processing programs come with preloaded images, templates, and other assistant software. Most word processors come bundled with graphics manipulation software, presentation software, spreadsheet software, and sometimes even website creation software. Often these programs work seamlessly together, allowing spreadsheets to be presented within a word processing document or documents to be presented in public presentations.


Commercial word processing programs include:
Microsoft Word, Apple Pages, Corel Wordperfect


Free programs include: Openoffice.org (an excellent choice) and Abiword, though there are quite a range of free office suite programs available for download


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A presentation program is a computer software package used to display information, normally in the form of a slide show. It typically includes three major functions: an editor that allows text to be inserted and formatted, a method for inserting and manipulating graphic images and a slide-show system to display the content.


There are many different types of presentations including professional (work-related), education, worship and for general communication. Presentation programs can either supplement or replace the use of older visual aid technology, such as Pamphlets, handouts, chalk boards, flip charts, posters, slides and overhead transparencies. Text, graphics, movies, and other objects are positioned on individual pages or "slides" or "foils". The "slide" analogy is a reference to the slide projector, a device which has become somewhat obsolete due to the use of presentation software. Slides can be printed, or (more usually) displayed on-screen and navigated through at the command of the presenter. Transitions between slides can be animated in a variety of ways, as can the emergence of elements on a slide itself.


Many presentation programs come with pre-designed images (clip art) and/or have the ability to import graphic images. Custom graphics can also be created in other programs such as Adobe Photoshop or Adobe Illustrator and then imported.


With the growth of digital photography and video, many programs that handle these types of media also include presentation functions for displaying them in a similar "slide show" format. For example, Apple's iPhoto allows groups of digital photos to be displayed in a slide show with options such as selecting transitions, choosing whether or not the show stops at the end or continues to loop, and including music to accompany the photos.


The most commonly known presentation program is Microsoft PowerPoint, although there are alternatives such as Corel Presentations, OpenOffice.org Impress and Apple's Keynote.


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Graphic creation software is a subclass of application software used for graphic design, multimedia development, specialized image development, general image editing or simply to access graphic files. Art software uses either raster or vector graphic reading and editing methods to create, edit, or view art.


Many artists (creative professionals) today use computers rather than traditional forms of art. Using graphic art software may be more efficient than rendering using traditional media by requiring less hand-eye coordination, requiring less visualization skills, and utilizing the computer's quicker (sometimes more accurate) automated rendering functions to create images.


Images created or enhanced in graphic creation software can be imported into word processing, presentation, publication, spreadsheet to enhance the overall final product.


Most graphic art software includes common functions, creation tools, editing tools, filters, and automated rendering modes.


Common general grapics editing software includes Adobe Photoshop, Adobe Photo Elements, Macromedia Fireworks, Paintshop Pro (JASC), Ulead PhotoImpact.


Several quality free programs available for download include IrfanView, Picasa (by Google), and OpenCanvas. The Openoffice.org Suite includes an excellent program for creating vector-based graphics.


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Media burning software allows the user to copy data (music, video, data) from another disk or drive onto blank disk-media, such as CD-R (CD with record-once capability), CD-RW (CD with write/rewrite capability), DVD-R (DVD with record-once capability), and DVD-RW (DVD with one of several recording/re-recording capabilities). DVD writable disks even come in a two-sided burnable technology that allows the DVD-burner to copy information onto both sides of the disk. This doubles the available recording space. Most CD-R/RW disks have 700-800 MB of data space, while DVD R/RW's have 4.0-8.0 GB of data space.


This media burning software communicates with a CD-RW or DVD-RW drive to perform these burning tasks. Popular retail programs include Nero (PC), EasyMedia Creator (PC), and Burn (Mac).


Other programs (many free) include - RealPlayer, UltraISO, RecordNow, Acoustica, Burn4Free, PowerISO, and BurnQuick.


Most computer systems come with one or more retail software programs, though sometimes it is a lite version of the program. Both Windows and Mac OS X also have built-in programs built into their operating system to provide basic burning services. Mac OS X even has a program to create interactive and beautiful DVD shows.


Burning software comes in a variety of recording technologies that facilitate burning DVD movies; documents and images; ISO images; CD audio files; and MP3/music files.


There are also different Freeware (free) software packages available.


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Publication software, also known as desktop publishing software (DTP) allows the personal computer user to inexpensively produce documents for either large scale publishing or smaller personal jobs. The user is able to create complex page layouts that combine text, photos, clipart, and shapes, as well as other visual elements and textual layout patterns (such as columns, inlaid text, subscript text, articles, etc.)


Because of the ease of use of this software, individuals can print only a few copies to a personal printer or send the digital layout pages (often outputted to PDFs) to a commercial printing company.


Some may wonder, what can DTP software do that word processing software cannot? In the early days (Pagemaker, the first DTP software was produced in 1985, whereas Wordstar and Wordperfect were already being used by thousands of users), there was a massive difference. Word processing software could do basic typewriting, text and margins, whereas any other layout elements were largely unknown to word processors. DTP software used a graphical user interface, where you could "see what it would look like" when it was published, a term now known as WYSIWYG (What-you-see-is-what-you-get).


In recent years, the strong suite for DTP software is in the templates, easily layouts that have been predefined, as well as output files & scalable font handling that far exceed the word processor. However, some of the layout options original designated to DTP software are now available in word processors (images, columns, spell check, etc.).


Publication software includes:
Adobe InDesign, Corel Ventura, Microsoft Publisher, Quark XPress, and Apple Pages (Mac).


Freeware DTP software includes Scribus and Passepartout.


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Database creation software provides the interface to create and manage database records. Databases are a collection of interrelated records that are arranged by a software program, called a Database Management System(DBMS), to create meaningful output, such as task lists, Pathfinder birthdays, or campout KP assignments. Most common software programs create and manage relational databases, meaning that information in a variety of locations can be pulled together and presented in one form or output. For example, you may have a list of Pathfinder birthdays, and you wish to assign KP list by birthday. You could call up the meals needing cleanup from one database, and have it assign Pathfinders to a KP duty based on their birthday. The final output would be one form, with three columns, but the information would be pulled from two databases.


Database Software programs include Microsoft Access and Corel Paradox.


Openoffice.org Suite contains a robust database similar to MS Access titled Base.


Specialized freeware databases can be found at downloading sites such as:
[http://download.com Download.com].


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Spreadsheet software creates spreadsheets. Spreadsheets are grids of information, usually spread across several pages or books that are used widely in the financial field to calculate and display financial data.


Spreadsheet software performs a lot of the functions formerly assigned to bookkeeping ledgers, and the program offers countless self-calculating tools that can provides thousands of bits of information rapidly, allowing a bookkeeper to keep up with a variety of financial data very quickly and efficiently.


In recent years, the increased abilities of spreadsheet software to manage text fields has led some users to blend their usage of word processing with spreadsheet management, creating organized (but usually small) lists. Some online database programs even output their information to tabular forms that can be edited in spreadsheet forms.


In some ways, a spreadsheet program is a database program, in that it can sort and manage linear databases, that is, databases that only have one "layer" of information.


Pathfinder clubs might find a spreadsheet program useful to keep track of dues, campout fees, or even to keep meeting attendance. Some counselors have even created Class level (Friend, Companion, Explorer, Ranger, Voyager, Guide) spreadsheets that allow the counselor to quickly "check off" who has completed the requirements towards their class level insignia.


Spreadsheet programs include: Microsoft Excel, Apple Numbers, and Corel Quattro Pro.


The free Openoffice.org Suite contains a program called Spreadsheet that performs the majority of tasks needed in a spreadsheet software program.


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Flash memory is a form of computer memory that can be electrically erased and reprogrammed. It is a technology that is primarily used in memory cards. This type of memory is erased and programmed in blocks consisting of multiple locations. This means that it can be saved and re-saved to, and files stored on it can be edited at any time. Flash memory is very inexpensive, and provides a cost-effective way to save large amounts of data (such as documents, pictures, and music) in one place. Examples of applications include digital audio players, digital cameras and mobile phones. Flash memory is also used in USB flash drives (thumb drives, handy drive), which are used for general storage and transfer of data between computers. It has also gained some popularity in the game console market, where it is often used for game save data.


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Disk media, more commonly referred to as removable media, is any media device that acts as an input or output device where data is displayed. Removable media eliminates such permanent media options as the internal hard drive.


In the 21st century, removable media provide specific niche devices and services, such as internet, GPS directions, music, and video, that all relate together through the common device, the computer. Removable media provides users with the opportunity to store information for processing at a later time or date.


Examples of removable media include DVDs, CDs, removable hard drives, floppy disks (in some older computers), media players, and digital cameras


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Software comes in a variety of ways, most commonly on a CD or as a file downloaded from the internet. If the file is downloaded from the internet, please verify that you trust the source you downloaded the file from. Generally, opening executable files attached to email is unwise and may infest your computer with trojan or virus software.

==='''Installation'''=== 


Each installer program works slightly differently, but we'll attempt to explain the basics.

==='''Windows:'''=== 

===='''''CD:'''''==== 


In most cases you would simply insert the program CD into your CD-ROM drive. In most cases, the CD will be automatically recognized as needing to be installed and the install program will automatically begin. If it does not, you can start the install program by choosing Start from your menu, then choosing Run... Browse to the location of the CD (usually D:), then choose the program listed there called setup.exe (or something similar). The CD should start installing the desired program. At times, you may have to input a serial number or other code to verify that you are indeed the owner of a legitimate copy of the software you are attempting to install. If you have pirated (illegally borrowed) the software, please choose to not install the program. There are so many ''legitimately'' free software offering available over the Internet, that it really isn't necessary to use pirated copies.

===='''''Download:'''''==== 


You will likely download a file named something.zip. This is a compressed file that needs "unzipped" by your windows program before it can be installed. Once you have uncompressed the file, you should double-click the file and it should start installing.


The installer may ask for your name, email, or other information. Please read the EULA Agreement carefully, since you are legally bound by this license agreement. In some cases, software downloaded from the internet is "free" but has other software (often called malware) attached to the installer program. These additional programs will be secretly installed on your system, and may impair the speed of your system. However, if they are uninstalled, the main program will no longer work properly, if at all. Again, if you read the EULA Agreement, you will have the opportunity to see if the software maker or company has added such programs, since they have to tell you about them in the EULA Agreement if they exist.


Some software programs may take awhile to install, especially if they come on more than one CD/DVD (such as mapping programs, office/graphics suites, and games).


Once a software program is installed, a shortcut is installed under the Programs folder (Start | Programs) and also possibly on your desktop. Click on this shortcut and the program will launch (begin).

==='''MAC'''=== 


Mac OS X has an application called Installer bundled with it that is used to "install" many MAC programs. However, this is not technically an installer, but a Package Manager.


Some commercial applications for Mac OS X use a custom installer, often Installer VISE or Stuffit InstallerMaker. Applications that do not need to install additional system components can be installed by moving the application files to a desired location on a hard drive; this is known as "drag-and-drop installation" and no installer software is needed. MANY Mac programs use this type of installation.


Mac OS X also includes a separate software updating application, Software Update that keeps installed programs updated via the internet.

===='''''CD'''''==== 
In a way similar to Windows, programs on CD are inserted in the MAC CD-ROM drive, and an installer begins and automated setup begins.

===='''''Download'''''==== 


Mac OS X downloaded files are usually archived in a StuffIt archive. The installer or drop-and-drag installation program can be unarchived and installed, following directions included with the archived program.

===Linux=== 
Most software for Linux systems is available over the Internet, though some commercial packages do occasionally come on media (such as a CD-Rom or DVD). Various distributions of Linux have different strategies for installing software packages, so there is no "one way" to do this.


Most software on a Linux system cannot be installed except by the System Administrator, so you will need to log in as root (or use the "su -" command to become root). Some Linux systems will have an "Install Software" item on the menu, and clicking this will lead you through the steps necessary to install a new program. Other systems require the use of a command line utility which must be executed from the system console.


RedHat developed the "rpm" file, which when downloaded can be installed either from a graphical user interface (follow the on-screen prompts) or from the command line, using the rpm utility:


rpm -U packagename


The -U option means "upgrade," and this will either replace an older version of the software that has already been installed, or install it if no version is present. Unfortunately, rpm packages have dependencies - you cannot install package X unless package Y is there (and is sufficiently up-to-date). You cannot install package Y until package Z is installed. Package Z may have its own dependency problems as well. This can go on seemingly forever. To address this problem, another utility was developed called "yum" (which stands for the Yellowdog Update Manager, "Yellowdog" being the name of another Linux distribution). Yum looks at all the dependencies and updates everything that is needed for package X, including packages Y, Z, and any other packages that are needed:


yum install packagename


Yum will then go out on the Internet, find the latest version of the package on an approved ''repository'', download it, download its dependencies (and the dependencies' dependencies), install them, and perform some basic configuration.
Yum can be configured to run on a regular basis to keep all the software installed on a Linux PC up-to-date automatically. Other Linux distributions have equivalent package management utilities.


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===Notes for discussion leaders:=== 


'''PLEASE do not begin this discussion without first prayerfully considering the potential direction of this HOT TOPIC conversation, as well as your practice in this arena.'''


Each year, billions of dollars of software is illegally pirated by consumers. When most leaders were young, they were instructed not to steal the candy bar from the 7/11 or the CD from Wal-Mart. In the twenty-first century, theft now encompasses what is often termed "intellectual property." That is, the items stolen are intangible in a physical sense, such as music, data, or software programs.


Many Christians have not however mentally adjusted their application of the "Thou shalt not steal" commandment to intellectual property. George Barna states that only 8% of American teenagers feel that piracy of music is morally wrong. In fact, only 48% of the youth surveyed said that someone in their lives had mentioned the moral issues surrounding this common practice.


In my teaching experience (I teach computers and bible for a Northern California Adventist Academy), I have found the approach of "I choose not to do this because...." and the "here's what this researcher discovered" approach as valid for most students. Each student has their opinion and is at their own place in their spiritual journey. Providing a discussion point is NOT likely to change their mind overnight (nor should it). However, it does provide them with the information as well as the strong backing to take a stand that is different from the status quo among their peers. I would strongly discourage an attitude of "this is the right answer and this is how you should do it" approach to this discussion! Allowing them to read the Bible texts and to discuss the implications without prematurely moralizing what you understand the passages to say is invaluable to THEIR learning and application process. Allow the Holy Spirit to do HIS work in HIS time.

==='''Bible texts that may provide a basis for your personal study and group discussion:'''=== 
*{{bible link|Exodus 20:15}} -- The commandment to not steal
*{{bible link|Genesis 31}} -- Rachel stealing the images
*{{bible link|Romans 2:21}} -- Being an consistent example of what you command of others
*{{bible link|Leviticus 6:2-7}} -- Stealing what has been entrusted to you
*{{bible link|Joshua 7}} -- Achan's theft
*{{bible link|John 12:6}} -- Judas' theft


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Most high schools and Adventist Academies have classes in Keyboarding and Computer Literacy. Evidence of completion of these two courses would be adequate evidence for this requirement.


This requirement should show evidence of individual creativity and involvement. See Requirement #1 for suggested programs.


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In Microsoft Word, this requires two separate documents, a data document for the addresses and the letter document for the standard part of the letter. The merge wizard (see windows help file) will assist you in stepping through the process.


In creating the letter document, merge fields could be placed in the address and salutation lines, though you can also use them in the body of the letter, such as using the person's first name later in the letter.


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This should be done using a database, even though most of this could be done as a spreadsheet. Remember that databases are a combination of form and database files. The output form should display the necessary information.


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This spreadsheet should not only display the data, but should also make use of formulas to automatically generate the data. Spreadsheets have the advantage over other recording methods that formulas can make repetitive tasks much easier by filling in cells with accurate data without manual entry.


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Templates are graphically rich files created by most office programs, such as Publisher, that allow you to easily create newsletter, newspaper, or other graphically rich publications. Combine images from the event with news information to create a FUN publication. A publication program, unlike a word processing program, includes layout fields that closely integrate themed colors, pictures, clip art, and text.


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Presentations can be used to effectively communicate your message to a large audience through the use of media rich content with projected images and text. For best effect, the presentation should use font sizes large enough to be read from a distance (typically size 24 or greater), and pictures of high-enough quality to not be pixelated. The same template or background should be used throughout the presentation. Slide transitions should be logical, and should not distract from the overall presentation. One of the most common mistakes of beginning presenters is to have the transitions be so fancy that the text and images zoom and whiz all over the screen, but are unreadable or distracting to the audience. KISS (Keep It Surprisingly Simple) is a great principle.


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==References== 


[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Installation_%28computer_programs%29 Installation of Computer Programs article from Wikipedia.org]


[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_media Flash Media article from Wikipedia.org]


[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presentation+program Presentation Program article from Wikipedia.org]


[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_disc_recording_technologies Optical Disc Recording Technologies article from Wikipedia.org]
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AY Honors/Computers - Advanced/Answer Key

2021-09-24T18:18:23Z

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A word processing program assists the user in creating letter, reports, papers, and other documents. Word processor software has filled the role that used to be assigned to a typewriter. However, a word processor can do a variety of additional tasks, including bold, italics, and underline; spell & grammar check; templates for a variety of advanced documents such as FAX, resume, and tables/forms; formatted tables, image import, Wordart, columns, and more.


Many word processing programs come with preloaded images, templates, and other assistant software. Most word processors come bundled with graphics manipulation software, presentation software, spreadsheet software, and sometimes even website creation software. Often these programs work seamlessly together, allowing spreadsheets to be presented within a word processing document or documents to be presented in public presentations.


Commercial word processing programs include:
Microsoft Word, Apple Pages, Corel Wordperfect


Free programs include: Openoffice.org (an excellent choice) and Abiword, though there are quite a range of free office suite programs available for download


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A presentation program is a computer software package used to display information, normally in the form of a slide show. It typically includes three major functions: an editor that allows text to be inserted and formatted, a method for inserting and manipulating graphic images and a slide-show system to display the content.


There are many different types of presentations including professional (work-related), education, worship and for general communication. Presentation programs can either supplement or replace the use of older visual aid technology, such as Pamphlets, handouts, chalk boards, flip charts, posters, slides and overhead transparencies. Text, graphics, movies, and other objects are positioned on individual pages or "slides" or "foils". The "slide" analogy is a reference to the slide projector, a device which has become somewhat obsolete due to the use of presentation software. Slides can be printed, or (more usually) displayed on-screen and navigated through at the command of the presenter. Transitions between slides can be animated in a variety of ways, as can the emergence of elements on a slide itself.


Many presentation programs come with pre-designed images (clip art) and/or have the ability to import graphic images. Custom graphics can also be created in other programs such as Adobe Photoshop or Adobe Illustrator and then imported.


With the growth of digital photography and video, many programs that handle these types of media also include presentation functions for displaying them in a similar "slide show" format. For example, Apple's iPhoto allows groups of digital photos to be displayed in a slide show with options such as selecting transitions, choosing whether or not the show stops at the end or continues to loop, and including music to accompany the photos.


The most commonly known presentation program is Microsoft PowerPoint, although there are alternatives such as Corel Presentations, OpenOffice.org Impress and Apple's Keynote.


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Graphic creation software is a subclass of application software used for graphic design, multimedia development, specialized image development, general image editing or simply to access graphic files. Art software uses either raster or vector graphic reading and editing methods to create, edit, or view art.


Many artists (creative professionals) today use computers rather than traditional forms of art. Using graphic art software may be more efficient than rendering using traditional media by requiring less hand-eye coordination, requiring less visualization skills, and utilizing the computer's quicker (sometimes more accurate) automated rendering functions to create images.


Images created or enhanced in graphic creation software can be imported into word processing, presentation, publication, spreadsheet to enhance the overall final product.


Most graphic art software includes common functions, creation tools, editing tools, filters, and automated rendering modes.


Common general grapics editing software includes Adobe Photoshop, Adobe Photo Elements, Macromedia Fireworks, Paintshop Pro (JASC), Ulead PhotoImpact.


Several quality free programs available for download include IrfanView, Picasa (by Google), and OpenCanvas. The Openoffice.org Suite includes an excellent program for creating vector-based graphics.


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Media burning software allows the user to copy data (music, video, data) from another disk or drive onto blank disk-media, such as CD-R (CD with record-once capability), CD-RW (CD with write/rewrite capability), DVD-R (DVD with record-once capability), and DVD-RW (DVD with one of several recording/re-recording capabilities). DVD writable disks even come in a two-sided burnable technology that allows the DVD-burner to copy information onto both sides of the disk. This doubles the available recording space. Most CD-R/RW disks have 700-800 MB of data space, while DVD R/RW's have 4.0-8.0 GB of data space.


This media burning software communicates with a CD-RW or DVD-RW drive to perform these burning tasks. Popular retail programs include Nero (PC), EasyMedia Creator (PC), and Burn (Mac).


Other programs (many free) include - RealPlayer, UltraISO, RecordNow, Acoustica, Burn4Free, PowerISO, and BurnQuick.


Most computer systems come with one or more retail software programs, though sometimes it is a lite version of the program. Both Windows and Mac OS X also have built-in programs built into their operating system to provide basic burning services. Mac OS X even has a program to create interactive and beautiful DVD shows.


Burning software comes in a variety of recording technologies that facilitate burning DVD movies; documents and images; ISO images; CD audio files; and MP3/music files.


There are also different Freeware (free) software packages available.


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Publication software, also known as desktop publishing software (DTP) allows the personal computer user to inexpensively produce documents for either large scale publishing or smaller personal jobs. The user is able to create complex page layouts that combine text, photos, clipart, and shapes, as well as other visual elements and textual layout patterns (such as columns, inlaid text, subscript text, articles, etc.)


Because of the ease of use of this software, individuals can print only a few copies to a personal printer or send the digital layout pages (often outputted to PDFs) to a commercial printing company.


Some may wonder, what can DTP software do that word processing software cannot? In the early days (Pagemaker, the first DTP software was produced in 1985, whereas Wordstar and Wordperfect were already being used by thousands of users), there was a massive difference. Word processing software could do basic typewriting, text and margins, whereas any other layout elements were largely unknown to word processors. DTP software used a graphical user interface, where you could "see what it would look like" when it was published, a term now known as WYSIWYG (What-you-see-is-what-you-get).


In recent years, the strong suite for DTP software is in the templates, easily layouts that have been predefined, as well as output files & scalable font handling that far exceed the word processor. However, some of the layout options original designated to DTP software are now available in word processors (images, columns, spell check, etc.).


Publication software includes:
Adobe InDesign, Corel Ventura, Microsoft Publisher, Quark XPress, and Apple Pages (Mac).


Freeware DTP software includes Scribus and Passepartout.


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Database creation software provides the interface to create and manage database records. Databases are a collection of interrelated records that are arranged by a software program, called a Database Management System(DBMS), to create meaningful output, such as task lists, Pathfinder birthdays, or campout KP assignments. Most common software programs create and manage relational databases, meaning that information in a variety of locations can be pulled together and presented in one form or output. For example, you may have a list of Pathfinder birthdays, and you wish to assign KP list by birthday. You could call up the meals needing cleanup from one database, and have it assign Pathfinders to a KP duty based on their birthday. The final output would be one form, with three columns, but the information would be pulled from two databases.


Database Software programs include Microsoft Access and Corel Paradox.


Openoffice.org Suite contains a robust database similar to MS Access titled Base.


Specialized freeware databases can be found at downloading sites such as:
[http://download.com Download.com].


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Spreadsheet software creates spreadsheets. Spreadsheets are grids of information, usually spread across several pages or books that are used widely in the financial field to calculate and display financial data.


Spreadsheet software performs a lot of the functions formerly assigned to bookkeeping ledgers, and the program offers countless self-calculating tools that can provides thousands of bits of information rapidly, allowing a bookkeeper to keep up with a variety of financial data very quickly and efficiently.


In recent years, the increased abilities of spreadsheet software to manage text fields has led some users to blend their usage of word processing with spreadsheet management, creating organized (but usually small) lists. Some online database programs even output their information to tabular forms that can be edited in spreadsheet forms.


In some ways, a spreadsheet program is a database program, in that it can sort and manage linear databases, that is, databases that only have one "layer" of information.


Pathfinder clubs might find a spreadsheet program useful to keep track of dues, campout fees, or even to keep meeting attendance. Some counselors have even created Class level (Friend, Companion, Explorer, Ranger, Voyager, Guide) spreadsheets that allow the counselor to quickly "check off" who has completed the requirements towards their class level insignia.


Spreadsheet programs include: Microsoft Excel, Apple Numbers, and Corel Quattro Pro.


The free Openoffice.org Suite contains a program called Spreadsheet that performs the majority of tasks needed in a spreadsheet software program.


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Flash memory is a form of computer memory that can be electrically erased and reprogrammed. It is a technology that is primarily used in memory cards. This type of memory is erased and programmed in blocks consisting of multiple locations. This means that it can be saved and re-saved to, and files stored on it can be edited at any time. Flash memory is very inexpensive, and provides a cost-effective way to save large amounts of data (such as documents, pictures, and music) in one place. Examples of applications include digital audio players, digital cameras and mobile phones. Flash memory is also used in USB flash drives (thumb drives, handy drive), which are used for general storage and transfer of data between computers. It has also gained some popularity in the game console market, where it is often used for game save data.


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Disk media, more commonly referred to as removable media, is any media device that acts as an input or output device where data is displayed. Removable media eliminates such permanent media options as the internal hard drive.


In the 21st century, removable media provide specific niche devices and services, such as internet, GPS directions, music, and video, that all relate together through the common device, the computer. Removable media provides users with the opportunity to store information for processing at a later time or date.


Examples of removable media include DVDs, CDs, removable hard drives, floppy disks (in some older computers), media players, and digital cameras


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Software comes in a variety of ways, most commonly on a CD or as a file downloaded from the internet. If the file is downloaded from the internet, please verify that you trust the source you downloaded the file from. Generally, opening executable files attached to email is unwise and may infest your computer with trojan or virus software.

==='''Installation'''=== 


Each installer program works slightly differently, but we'll attempt to explain the basics.

==='''Windows:'''=== 

===='''''CD:'''''==== 


In most cases you would simply insert the program CD into your CD-ROM drive. In most cases, the CD will be automatically recognized as needing to be installed and the install program will automatically begin. If it does not, you can start the install program by choosing Start from your menu, then choosing Run... Browse to the location of the CD (usually D:), then choose the program listed there called setup.exe (or something similar). The CD should start installing the desired program. At times, you may have to input a serial number or other code to verify that you are indeed the owner of a legitimate copy of the software you are attempting to install. If you have pirated (illegally borrowed) the software, please choose to not install the program. There are so many ''legitimately'' free software offering available over the Internet, that it really isn't necessary to use pirated copies.

===='''''Download:'''''==== 


You will likely download a file named something.zip. This is a compressed file that needs "unzipped" by your windows program before it can be installed. Once you have uncompressed the file, you should double-click the file and it should start installing.


The installer may ask for your name, email, or other information. Please read the EULA Agreement carefully, since you are legally bound by this license agreement. In some cases, software downloaded from the internet is "free" but has other software (often called malware) attached to the installer program. These additional programs will be secretly installed on your system, and may impair the speed of your system. However, if they are uninstalled, the main program will no longer work properly, if at all. Again, if you read the EULA Agreement, you will have the opportunity to see if the software maker or company has added such programs, since they have to tell you about them in the EULA Agreement if they exist.


Some software programs may take awhile to install, especially if they come on more than one CD/DVD (such as mapping programs, office/graphics suites, and games).


Once a software program is installed, a shortcut is installed under the Programs folder (Start | Programs) and also possibly on your desktop. Click on this shortcut and the program will launch (begin).

==='''MAC'''=== 


Mac OS X has an application called Installer bundled with it that is used to "install" many MAC programs. However, this is not technically an installer, but a Package Manager.


Some commercial applications for Mac OS X use a custom installer, often Installer VISE or Stuffit InstallerMaker. Applications that do not need to install additional system components can be installed by moving the application files to a desired location on a hard drive; this is known as "drag-and-drop installation" and no installer software is needed. MANY Mac programs use this type of installation.


Mac OS X also includes a separate software updating application, Software Update that keeps installed programs updated via the internet.

===='''''CD'''''==== 
In a way similar to Windows, programs on CD are inserted in the MAC CD-ROM drive, and an installer begins and automated setup begins.

===='''''Download'''''==== 


Mac OS X downloaded files are usually archived in a StuffIt archive. The installer or drop-and-drag installation program can be unarchived and installed, following directions included with the archived program.

===Linux=== 
Most software for Linux systems is available over the Internet, though some commercial packages do occasionally come on media (such as a CD-Rom or DVD). Various distributions of Linux have different strategies for installing software packages, so there is no "one way" to do this.


Most software on a Linux system cannot be installed except by the System Administrator, so you will need to log in as root (or use the "su -" command to become root). Some Linux systems will have an "Install Software" item on the menu, and clicking this will lead you through the steps necessary to install a new program. Other systems require the use of a command line utility which must be executed from the system console.


RedHat developed the "rpm" file, which when downloaded can be installed either from a graphical user interface (follow the on-screen prompts) or from the command line, using the rpm utility:


rpm -U packagename


The -U option means "upgrade," and this will either replace an older version of the software that has already been installed, or install it if no version is present. Unfortunately, rpm packages have dependencies - you cannot install package X unless package Y is there (and is sufficiently up-to-date). You cannot install package Y until package Z is installed. Package Z may have its own dependency problems as well. This can go on seemingly forever. To address this problem, another utility was developed called "yum" (which stands for the Yellowdog Update Manager, "Yellowdog" being the name of another Linux distribution). Yum looks at all the dependencies and updates everything that is needed for package X, including packages Y, Z, and any other packages that are needed:


yum install packagename


Yum will then go out on the Internet, find the latest version of the package on an approved ''repository'', download it, download its dependencies (and the dependencies' dependencies), install them, and perform some basic configuration.
Yum can be configured to run on a regular basis to keep all the software installed on a Linux PC up-to-date automatically. Other Linux distributions have equivalent package management utilities.


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===Notes for discussion leaders:=== 


'''PLEASE do not begin this discussion without first prayerfully considering the potential direction of this HOT TOPIC conversation, as well as your practice in this arena.'''


Each year, billions of dollars of software is illegally pirated by consumers. When most leaders were young, they were instructed not to steal the candy bar from the 7/11 or the CD from Wal-Mart. In the twenty-first century, theft now encompasses what is often termed "intellectual property." That is, the items stolen are intangible in a physical sense, such as music, data, or software programs.


Many Christians have not however mentally adjusted their application of the "Thou shalt not steal" commandment to intellectual property. George Barna states that only 8% of American teenagers feel that piracy of music is morally wrong. In fact, only 48% of the youth surveyed said that someone in their lives had mentioned the moral issues surrounding this common practice.


For the complete article: [http://www.barna.org/FlexPage.aspx?Page=BarnaUpdate&BarnaUpdateID=162 Barna Update Online]


In my teaching experience (I teach computers and bible for a Northern California Adventist Academy), I have found the approach of "I choose not to do this because...." and the "here's what this researcher discovered" approach as valid for most students. Each student has their opinion and is at their own place in their spiritual journey. Providing a discussion point is NOT likely to change their mind overnight (nor should it). However, it does provide them with the information as well as the strong backing to take a stand that is different from the status quo among their peers. I would strongly discourage an attitude of "this is the right answer and this is how you should do it" approach to this discussion! Allowing them to read the Bible texts and to discuss the implications without prematurely moralizing what you understand the passages to say is invaluable to THEIR learning and application process. Allow the Holy Spirit to do HIS work in HIS time.

==='''Bible texts that may provide a basis for your personal study and group discussion:'''=== 
*{{bible link|Exodus 20:15}} -- The commandment to not steal
*{{bible link|Genesis 31}} -- Rachel stealing the images
*{{bible link|Romans 2:21}} -- Being an consistent example of what you command of others
*{{bible link|Leviticus 6:2-7}} -- Stealing what has been entrusted to you
*{{bible link|Joshua 7}} -- Achan's theft
*{{bible link|John 12:6}} -- Judas' theft


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Most high schools and Adventist Academies have classes in Keyboarding and Computer Literacy. Evidence of completion of these two courses would be adequate evidence for this requirement.


This requirement should show evidence of individual creativity and involvement. See Requirement #1 for suggested programs.


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In Microsoft Word, this requires two separate documents, a data document for the addresses and the letter document for the standard part of the letter. The merge wizard (see windows help file) will assist you in stepping through the process.


In creating the letter document, merge fields could be placed in the address and salutation lines, though you can also use them in the body of the letter, such as using the person's first name later in the letter.


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This should be done using a database, even though most of this could be done as a spreadsheet. Remember that databases are a combination of form and database files. The output form should display the necessary information.


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This spreadsheet should not only display the data, but should also make use of formulas to automatically generate the data. Spreadsheets have the advantage over other recording methods that formulas can make repetitive tasks much easier by filling in cells with accurate data without manual entry.


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Templates are graphically rich files created by most office programs, such as Publisher, that allow you to easily create newsletter, newspaper, or other graphically rich publications. Combine images from the event with news information to create a FUN publication. A publication program, unlike a word processing program, includes layout fields that closely integrate themed colors, pictures, clip art, and text.


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Presentations can be used to effectively communicate your message to a large audience through the use of media rich content with projected images and text. For best effect, the presentation should use font sizes large enough to be read from a distance (typically size 24 or greater), and pictures of high-enough quality to not be pixelated. The same template or background should be used throughout the presentation. Slide transitions should be logical, and should not distract from the overall presentation. One of the most common mistakes of beginning presenters is to have the transitions be so fancy that the text and images zoom and whiz all over the screen, but are unreadable or distracting to the audience. KISS (Keep It Surprisingly Simple) is a great principle.


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==References== 


[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Installation_%28computer_programs%29 Installation of Computer Programs article from Wikipedia.org]


[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_media Flash Media article from Wikipedia.org]


[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presentation+program Presentation Program article from Wikipedia.org]


[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_disc_recording_technologies Optical Disc Recording Technologies article from Wikipedia.org]
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AY Honors/Communications - Advanced/Answer Key

2021-09-24T18:11:37Z

MBoismier:

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[[Category:AY Honors/See Also/Communications|Communications]]
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{{:AY Honors/Code/Morse Code}}


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Note that the US Army use of Wigwag does not use Morse Code but rather a single flag moved between positions 1, 2 and 3. Each letter is represented by a series of numbers.


The oldest flag system associated with the US Army Signal Corps is called Wig-wag. The name reflects the concept of back and forth movement as a means of signaling through motion. (PLEASE NOTE: Often this system has been misidentified as “Wig-wam.” A Wig-wam is a temporary arched framework structure overlaid with bark or hides to provide shelter used by Native Americans of the Algonquian language group.) Wig-wag is the signaling system developed for military field operations by Army surgeon Albert J. Myer prior to the Civil War. He developed this system based on a two element “tap-code” he created for the deaf. Myers’ Wig-wag system uses one flag for signaling. The position of the flags, left, right, front, represent the numerals 1, 2, 3 respectively and combinations of these numerals are used to convey the message.
The one-flag Wig-wag system used a cotton flag of two, four, or six feet square. The larger the flag, the greater distance it could be seen. The flag pole could be extended to a length of 16 feet using 4-foot segments joined with brass fittings. It took a strong soldier to wave a 16 foot pole with a 6-foot square flag on it for an hour or more, especially in wind, heat and probably under enemy fire. During night operations, the flag was replaced with a specially designed kerosene fueled torch, but employed exactly as the flag would be during daytime. During daytime operations, different sizes and colors of flags were employed based upon atmospheric conditions, such as clouds, haze, blue sky, etc. The signal soldier had these varieties of flags as part of their kit, but at any one time, only one flag or torch was used for signaling.

The Myer Wig-wag system and associated codes were used by both Union and Confederate armies during the Civil War. The Union Navy also employed this system and it served as the first Joint Signal Code between the Army and Navy until the end of the nineteenth century.

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==References== 
* Wikipedia article on [[W:Morse Code|Morse Code]]
* Wikipedia article on [[W:Semaphore (communication)|Semaphores]]
* http://www.cromwellbutlers.com/sbb_0617.htm
[[Category:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]
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AY Honors/Business/Answer Key

2021-09-24T18:00:43Z

MBoismier:

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the point where the business is not making or losing money
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any activity designed to create a profit
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a detailed, hopefully written, plan of how the business will be organized, what will be produced and sold, and at what cost. Usually includes a budget
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the money used to finance the business. Can include investment by the owners, borrowed money, and retained earnings.
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several meanings including 1. The amount of money paid on the owners shares from profits. 2. The system or method of getting goods or services to market
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the rent on borrowed money.
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an organization with less than five employees, small enough to require little capital ($35,000 or less) to get started. Microbusiness owners are the '...people who refer to themselves as soloists, independents, consultants, craftsmen, artists, musicians, freelancers, free agents, and self-employed people. The majority of these companies are one-person enterprises ...operate out of their homes=== and many ...have part-time help from a family member or friends.' (Courtesy of Lloyd Lemons in his Microbusiness Defined article).<ref>https://www.sba.gov/blogs/your-small-business-microbusiness-if-so-you-may-be-luck</ref>
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the amount charged to the buyer for the product or service offered by the business
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the good or service the business sells
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the action of making or manufacturing from components or raw materials, or the process of being so manufactured.
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the positive amount left after the business pays all expenses.
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activity that is designed to increase sales or general awareness of the business, its products and/or services.
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a product that is not a physical item.
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the group of potential buyers the business is attempting to attract. A given target market is very product and business specific can be defined by some combination of geography, income level, and often other demographic characteristics like gender, age, marital status, faith, buying habits, interests, amd more. Most businesses will attract the occasional buyer from outside the target market as well, but if too many buyers are from outside the target market it is time to refine the target market.


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The best business ideas are found at the intersection of 6 considerations, which we can remember as the 6 C's.


'''1. Customers'''


Your business will need customers and you must determine who the customers are and discover what the customers really want. The bankruptcy rolls are filled with former businesses which were based on what the business person THINKS the potential customers want. Do not assume that other people want what you want. You must do market research with real potential customers. Do not assume that your friends and family will tell you the truth about your idea because few people are willing to give honest negative feedback to someone close to them.


Also, a business with only one customer is more like a subcontractor or type of employee. If you rely on only one customer that customer controls you and can easily put you out of business. Figure out how you will diversify your customer base.


'''2. Compelling'''


A great business idea has to be something you care about. You will be spending a lot of time on your business, selling others on your business and its products and investing your money in the business. If you don't have a passion for the business your chance of failure is very high, even if all the other C's are covered. Equally important, your product must be compelling to the potential customers. Unless you offer something they absolutely have to buy (basic utilities for example) customers who think the product is just interesting are useless - you need people who will make the purchase.


'''3. Competency'''


If the business does not fit your skills and abilities you should not do the business until you acquire the appropriate skills. There might be a great potential business for a dentist in your town but if you have not graduated dental school it is not the business for you. Other cases might not be so obvious. Think about the technical, legal, sales, and other aspects of the business. If you can't do everything, and most of us can't, you will need to hire other people. Can you afford and competently supervise these specialists?


'''4. Capital'''


The business must be financially feasible. Every business has setup costs, equipment costs, cost of space. You will need enough capital to get your business set up, and to expand it over time.


'''5. Cashflow'''


Beyond the required capital, most business lose money during start up. You will need working capital (money to cover short term differences between cash inflows and outflows). Many businesses fail by running out of money because the management misjudged the cashflow situation. This problem plagues businesses that grow slower than anticipated and those that grow faster than planned for. Fast growth requires investment in people, equipment, receivables, inventory etc and this can run even an otherwise highly successful business out of money.


'''6. Competition'''


Every business has direct and indirect competition. You must evaluate your competition carefully to understand if and how you can differentiate your business from the competition successfully.


'''A Pathfinder Club as a Business Idea'''


Discuss with your Pathfinders a business they are familiar with - which could be large or small, then consider stretching their minds by analysing their Pathfinder Club as a business.


In many ways, your Pathfinder Club is a (non-profit) business. The club needs customers (children between the ages of 10-15). The most obvious potential customers are children and teens within your local church, but children in the wider community are also welcome to participate, as are children from nearby churches. If the Pathfinder Club is the business, the Pathfinders are the customers.


We know that many kids like Pathfinders, but do they really want it? There would be no demand for Pathfinders at 9 AM Tuesday morning because the kids are in school. We also need to craft the Pathfinder program to be exciting and appealing to potential customers. Too much book work without enough hands on activities will not make happy customers.


If you were thinking about leading a Pathfinder Club you'd better find it compelling because you are signing up for a big job. You also need to be able to make it compelling to your customers and their parents.


Obviously a potential leader needs to have leadership skills, and be willing and able to acquire lots of skills, just like in a business.


A new Pathfinder Club needs capital for uniforms, flags, tents, gear, and so on. It also needs cashflow from the sponsoring church, dues, fundraising etc. Without capital and cashflow your club will not have the things it needs to run, or deliver the product (club experience and fun) to the customers.


Just like any business, a Pathfinder Club has direct and indirect competition. Nearby Pathfinder Clubs (within driving distance) are direct competition because a Pathfinder might move over to a bigger/most successful/better lead/more fun Pathfinder Club. Scouts/Girl Guides are also direct competitors offering similar (though not spiritual) programs. Indirect competitors include competitive sports teams, non-competitive recreational activities, or anything else that can use up a Pathfinder's free time, even video games.


There are far more ways you should NOT come up with a business idea. Lots of businesses are started because the 'businessperson' if you can call them that, wants to do something interesting but refuses to figure out a good plan or do the market research.


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Each business, no matter how small needs people to perform the important functions. Someone needs to take care of the finances, production, sales, purchasing, personal management, and general management. In a very small business the proprietor might cover all these areas, while perhaps contracting out functions like accounting. In a large company there maybe departments of people to do each function. Unless the key business functions are covered, the business will not be able to function for long.


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Promotion, sales, marketing and advertising (all parts of promotion) is the most important function in a business. Without sales, and the promotional efforts that drive sales, the business quickly fails. The correct type of promotion depends on the type, location, size, and development stage of the business. There is no fool proof answer to successful promotion. Successful businesses carefully measure the return on their promotional efforts. They regularly try new methods of promotion and discard unsuccessful ones. They split test promotions to discover which advertisements and other promotions work better than others.


If you pursue a business degree in University you can expect to take entire courses that just introduce fields like Advertising, Marketing, and Sales Management. You might even specialize an entire 4 year degrees in one of these closely related fields, so we can only give a very light overview here.


Promotion includes:


'''Advertising''' - usually paid efforts to get a specific message out
*TV and Radio (mass media)
*Magazine and Newspaper (print media)
*Web and New Media (online, social media) including Google Adwords, Facebook Ads, YouTube ads etc
*Direct mail and flyer services
*Billboards, bus benches, on transit vehicles (outdoor)
*Signs on the outside of the business

'''Sponsorships''' - paid efforts to get the business or brand name more famous, but not with a specific call to action
*Sporting events, cultural events etc
*Buying naming rights to buildings (parks, sports stadiums, cultural centers etc)
*Promotion of charities (banks in Canada like to raise money for charities)


'''Online Strategy'''
*Websites
*Facebook, Twitter etc profiles and pages
*YouTube channels
*Putting out content like videos and images that the business hopes will be shared and go viral
*email campaigns
*Online contests (almost all contests have an online component today)


'''Direct Sales'''
*Door to door sales strategy
*Telephone sales or lead generation
*Multi-level marketing (Amway etc)
*Promotion through schools and other groups where the group becomes the sales force to raise money
*Booth at a craft market, community event etc that does direct sales


'''Coupons and Special Offers'''
*Offering money off via a coupon
*Point of Purchase (POP) displays or in-store signage
*Attaching a rider product as a bonus on another product (product bundling)
*Service bundling (get a discount for buying your TV, phone and internet together)
*Loyalty programs and point or sticker collection programs
*Affiliate marketing (Amazon uses this in a big way, as does the insurance industry)


Can you think of more promotional strategies within these categories, or even other categories?


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Price is a function primarily of what the target market is willing to pay (market price). You must first determine the market price and then determine if the business can profitably meet the market price after covering all expenses. If you can't make money, you need to find a new product, find ways to lower the cost, or find a different target market that will pay enough for the product.


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The break-even point (BEP) in economics, business, and specifically cost accounting, is the point at which total cost and total revenue are equal: there is no net loss or gain, and one has "broken even." A profit or a loss has not been made, although opportunity costs have been "paid", and capital has received the risk-adjusted, expected return. In short, all costs that needs to be paid are paid by the firm but the profit is equal to 0.


For planning, you will need to figure out three numbers and then graph or spreadsheet them. These are:


*Expected average revenue per unit
*Fixed costs - those costs that stay the same regardless of how many or few units you sell. Rent, basic staff, and utilities are usually fixed costs.
*Variable costs, expressed per unit at various sales levels.


There are actually two break even points. The first is a theoretical calculation of what level of sales in an accounting period (like a month or quarter) that results in the business no longer losing money. The second to occur is where the business has enough cumulative sales ''over time'' to offset all the expenses to date. It is also called getting out of the red and into the black because negative numbers in accounting reports are often printed in red ink while positive numbers are printed in black ink.


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A budget showing the difference between all expected revenue and all expected expenses will show the projected profit or loss. An income statement shows actual income and expenses for an accounting period with the difference being the profit or loss.


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Profits are used in one or a combination of these ways depending on the objectives of the company:
*dividends to shareholders
*to increase the working capital (cash on hand)
*to buy assets or otherwise invest in growing the business, including increases in receivables
*to retire debt


If the business is not structured as a company, the profits go to the single owner or partners who may reinvest if they wish.


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This requirement introduces the business concept of a [[W:SWOT analysis|SWOT analysis]]. SWOT is a popular way to evaluate business ideas and the business itself. While not a perfect tool, it is widely used in organizational decision making and can be very helpful.


When doing SWOT, you make lists of internal and external factors influencing the plan or organization. Strengths and Weaknesses are internal while Opportunities and Threats are external.


[[File:SWOT_en.svg]]


Every Pathfinder Club needs to bring in money, and every plan to bring in money is essentially a business plan. So let's run an example your own Club can expand on.


'''Step 1:''' Generate ideas for a business. Write down even seemingly crazy ideas because they may prove practical or lead to a great idea. You might also combine ideas as you move through the process.


Example ideas: flea market, car wash, making and selling quilts, building and selling bird houses.


'''Step 2:''' Take the first idea - a flea market day at your gym to make money. The Club would go into the business of renting space and tables, as well as offering ancillary services. Is this a good idea? Let's do a SWOT Analysis to find out.


Step 3: Start by everyone brainstorming points for the list of factors. Write them on a sheet of paper or a white board for all to see (which reduces duplication and encourages related ideas). Don't worry about classifying the points during the brainstorming but be thinking about Internal Strengths, and Weaknesses as well as External Opportunities and Threats. Here are some possible SWOT items.


Strengths (internal):


*The club has 10 Pathfinders and 5 adults to advertise and run the sale
*Not a lot of skill needed
*Pathfinders have time (nothing else to do on Sunday)
*Earning this honor is motivational
*Might make $1000 dollars based on rough budget


Weaknesses (internal):
*No one has any experience at this business
*Some Pathfinders are too young to help without a parent to help
*Takes up time that could be used for archery or camping or whatever


Opportunities (external):
*People like to support a good cause and Pathfinders (framed as a "youth program") is considered by everyone to be a good cause
*We can use the school gym, tables and chairs for free
*Facebook groups and walls are a good place to advertise free
*We can advertise with fliers while can collecting
*We promote the Pathfinder Club and possibly attract new members
*We introduce people to the Adventist School and adjoining church


Threats (external):
*People might leave a lot of garbage
*If it snows, few will show up
*The public school two blocks away has a similar event the week before, so people might sell their stuff there instead
*The city might require a permit and might not approve it.


'''Step 4:''' Categorize your list and weight it. While categorizing, you should see some things you missed, so add them. Don't just count up the S's and O's vs the W's and T's, you need to assign importance to them. Some threats are only remote or even not real for example. A big opportunity might be worth doing if there is limited threats and the weaknesses can be overcome. However a major weakness in an otherwise great idea can sink it.


'''Step 5:''' Can you eliminate threats and fix weaknesses? Perhaps teaming up with another group or finding a donor is the answer.


'''Step 6:''' Either make a decision (Yes or No), or compare to your SWOT on several other business ideas before making a decision.


In this example, we also did a SWOT on the car wash, quilts and birdhouses. We decided that we could earn the [[AY Honors/Woodworking|Woodworking]] honor while building the birdhouses and than sell them at our flea market event. We also decided to sell veggie tacos at the event and have a display about our Pathfinder club.


We decided that since we want to do the business in January, our Canadian location (a Weakness for the car wash idea) meant cold weather (a threat in the car wash idea) and that these two factors could lead to frozen Pathfinders which trumped all the Strengths and Opportunities for the car wash business idea.


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both a concise two or three sentences plus a more detailed analysis of how you plan to run the business
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will you use money on hand, borrow, or get investors?
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determined through market research and your budgeted costs plus markup.
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who do you expect to buy your product or service? Define the target market as carefully as you can as this will help in everything from pricing to promotion strategy.
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this will be based on your product, where to best connect with your target market, and especially the resources available to you
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this could be a specific place, a range of places (different retailers, door to door, or online)
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your budgeted profit - expected income less expected expenses including contingency for unexpected expenses. If you are not confident in a profit don't to the business!
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what will you do with the expected profits. Will money go to the club? Do you need to share with your investors? Will you reinvest to build the business bigger?


This is a good outline for any business plan. Every good business plan is written down and checked carefully. Are your assumptioms correct? Have you covered all your expected costs? As you execute your plan, check back to be sure you are following the plan.


Business Plans are not meant to be written and then thrown in a drawer to be forgotten. Treat it as a living plan always subject to improvement. You may need to adjust the plan if circumstances turn out to be different than you planned, or if things change. Regualrly evaluate your business plan to see what assumptions need to be adjusted and to see how you did so you can improve the plan going forward.


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For your Pathfinder Club business you will want to assign different roles to the participants in the business. Someone should be the President/General Manager too to coordinate the other's work, hold people accountable for performance and help make difficult decisions


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The product could be a service or a physical product.


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Look back at your promotion plans. You will likely want to try several promotion methods and test which work best


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This means getting money from real customers


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The report should be to your team, Pathfinder Club Director and to any investors or financial backers


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You need to be accountable to the stakeholders. This might include reporting to your church (which likely includes many customers) and show them what you did with the profits. This will help with your next fundraiser.


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Evaluation of a business plan is really important because it helps you do even better next time. Where there any failures? What could be improved? Can you add in something that will make the project more profitable? Look at each part of the business and assess for improvement.


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Everything belongs to God, including your business. Remember to treat God's business right and God will treat you right. Discuss what this means in the context of your plans.


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Some discussion starters. Do you have the appropriate licenses and permits? Does your business meet the zoning bylaws? Are you collecting and remitting taxes correctly (or are you exempt and why)? How can you be a good witness to government officials?


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Discussion starters include:
How can you provide a quality product at a fair price to your customer? Can you find ways to witness and model Christ to your clients?


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The Christian businessperson should treat everyone around the business as they would like to be treated. Treat all employees honestly and fairly, and expect them to treat you honestly as well.


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{{Bible link|Genesis 41:39-57}}
{{Bible link|Luke 19:11-26}}


Other stories to look at:


Jacob's success while working for Laban. He used some kind of business plan for his farm that is hard to understand, but it worked {{Bible link|Genesis 30}}.


As far as we can tell, Jesus called no synagogue preachers to be his closest disciples. Instead Jesus called at least 6 fishermen who owned boats and sold fish. He called Matthew, a businessman contracted to the Romans as a local tax collector. Even Judas seems to be a finance person for he was tasked with keeping the money.


Jesus himself was a businessperson, part of a family business (though in English we read Jesus was a carpenter, the Greek word “tekton” actually describes a craftsman, one who constructs; a versatile builder and stone worker.) Perhaps this is why in His ministry Jesus demonstrated such a broad knowledge of business and why about 34 of his approximately 50 recorded parables dealt with business, finance or workplace content for the illustration. Jesus told parables about many businesses including farming (sower, shepherds, etc), fishing, investing (parable of the talents) buying land (man found treasure, sold everything and bought the field), trading (pearl of great price), and more.


Many of Jesus' public ministry appearances appear to have occurred in the marketplace and workplace.


Paul, Priscilla and Aquila, operated a tent making business, so that none of them appear to have needed others to donate so they could preach. Lydia, a leader in the Philippian Church, was a textile dealer.


James White sold Bibles, Bible Commentaries and other reference books in the frontier to support his and Ellen White's ministry. The Whites also invested in real estate and in preparing their own books for sale. Some were critical of the White's relative financial success, but an investigation into the White's finances found that they legitimately had been supporting themselves plus the infant church from their business endeavors.


Other early Adventists often used businesses to support themselves. For example, Hiram Edson farmed during the summer to support himself while preaching. The Review and Herald and Pacific Press took in outside printing work to subsidize and support the religious work. The Kelloggs created breakfast cereal and built a famous company. Adventists also build a hospital system, book publishing empire, and ran many industries to support the school system.


The SDA Church owns and operates many publishing houses, book centers, schools, hospitals, nursing homes, food factories (most famously Sanitarium Health Foods based in the South Pacific). The Church also owns substantial real estate around the world. Church administration (theologians) has proven to usually be poorly equipped to run businesses owned by the church, which is why professional well trained business people are vital to ensure that the businesses the church does own and operate are run accordingly to good business principles.


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AY Honors/Business/Answer Key

2021-09-24T17:59:58Z

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AY Honors/Aviators/Answer Key

2021-09-24T16:26:27Z

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We don't have a real plane in the Honor Wiki, but here is some guidance for when you are looking at the exterior of a real plane. A museum of flight with airplanes you can get inside of may be an easy place to meet this requirement. Study up on where the parts should be on the plane and what they should look like before you go, that way you can make all the correct identifications when you are there.
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We don't have a real plane in the Honor Wiki, but here is some guidance for when you are looking at the interior a real plane.


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The requirement does not specify how to detail their role and importance, but a short written or oral report should suffice, although visual depictions, blog posts etc would also be acceptable. Here are links to the Wikipedia articles on each pioneer, which is a good starting point for further investigation:

*[[W:Leonardo da Vinci|Leonardo da Vinci]]: a man of diverse talents. He conceptualised flying machines like a helicopter that if built, would be pretty close to operational.
*[[W:Daniel Bernoulli|Daniel Bernoulli]]: Swiss math and physics pioneer born in 1700. His work in fluid dynamics established the science behind how a aircraft wing can get lift, over 100 years before the principles were successfully applied to flight.
*[[W:Sir George Cayley|Sir George Cayley]] an Englishman who in around 1799 made significant break throughs in aviation science. Designed first successful human glider. Discovered the four aerodynamic forces of flight weight, lift, drag, thrust and cambered wings, basis for the design of the modern airplane. Called the father of aviation by some.
*[[W:Otto Lilienthal|Otto Lilienthal]]
*[[W:Gustave Whitehead|Gustave Whitehead]]
*[[W:Octave Chanute|Octave Chanute]]
*[[W:Wright Brothers|Orville & Wilbur Wright]],
*[[W:Glen Hammond Curtiss|Glen Hammond Curtiss]]
*[[W:Amelia Earhart|Amelia Earhart]]


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The intent here to take a flight sitting beside or near the pilot in the cockpit, not as a passenger on a commercial jet where you learn very little about the process of flying an airplane. This is why the honor says "intro flight". There is likely going to be a fairly significant cost associated with this activity. An intro flight may spur or reinforce the Pathfinder's desire to explore aviation as a vocation or a hobby.


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As with other honors that require interviewing professionals, the following are good guidelines:
*Make the appointment well in advance
*Be prompt and don't waste the professional's time with foolishness
*Be thankful they gave their time to talk to you
*Be prepared with good questions, but be open to asking good spontaneous followup questions


{{Bible link|Matthew 28:18-20}}


ADD Discussion


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==References== 
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[[Category:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Instructor Required|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]
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AY Honors/Artificial Intelligence/Answer Key

2021-09-24T16:20:01Z

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Artificial intelligence is man made intelligence using machines and software designed to perform given task and mimic the thinking process of a human being.


“The science of making machines do things that would require intelligence if done by men” – Dr. Marvin Minsky (MIT)


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The focus of this chart board is for the pathfinder to begin their research into the history of artificial intelligence and its path of acceptance as an academic discipline.


Should include more than modern AI


*4th Century BC – Aristotle invents syllogistic logic and deductive reasoning
*1206 – Al-Jazari designs what is beleved to be the first programmable humanoid robot
*1642 – Pascal creates first mechanical calculating machine
*1662 – Sir Samuel Morland devises Arithmetical machines
*1673 – Leibniz improves Pascal’s machines to add division and multiplication and devises Calculus to determine how reasoning can be decided mechanically
*1854 – George Boole develops binary algebra representing the laws of thought and creating Boolean expressions
*1936 – Alan Turing proposes the universal Turing Machine
*1943 – McCullock and Pitts publish “A logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity” laying the foundations of neural networks
*1956 – John McCarthy coined the term “Artificial Intelligence”
*1957 Newel & Simon (Carnegie Mellon) demonstrate the General Problem Solver
*1958 – John McCarthy invents LISP
*1964 – Danny Bobrow defends his dissertation at MIT on Natural Language Processing
*1968 - Minsky and Papert publish “Perceptrons” – demonstrating limits of simple neural nets
*1969 - Shank (Yale) defined conceptual dependency model of natural language understanding
*1972 – Comerauer develops PROLOG
*1976 – Lenat’s dissertation with the Automated Mathematician program demonstrates computer learning and discovery of interesting conjectures
*1980 – First AAAI (American Association of Artificial Intelligence) held at Stanford
*1987 – Minsky publishes “The Society of Mind” a description of the mind as a collection of cooperating agents
*1997 – Deep Blue defeats Garry Kasparov in a chess match
*2011 - IBM's Watson competed on Jeopardy! against former winners Brad Rutter and Ken Jennings and won $1 million using natural language processing.


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The ultimate goal of artificial intelligence is to create a device that is capable of making independent external decisions using a series of self driven internal instructions. In other words, a part of its objective is to make a computer perform more like a human.


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An android is an intelligent machine with a human appearance. Continued advancements in robotic technology have lighted the way for more improved designs that better impersonate human beings.


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a machine that is capable of displaying human-like general intelligence such as self awareness and consciousness.


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a machine that has the ability to express social skills and emotional skills based on the reactions of other people that it may come into contact with.


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The processes of a machine gathering data that it knows and hypothesizing independent/spontaneous new information that is relevant to the problem


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a process of a computer evaluating input and extracting new knowledge or heuristics from the observation of existing data.


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a machine's ability to move and locate objects, including itself.


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the ability of a machine to set goals, and then move forward to achieve those goals.


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a machine's ability to use its own inputs like sensors, cameras, and microphones to develop its own conclusions.


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a machine's ability to search and locate the shortest path.


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a machine's ability to make identification based on a series of inputs.


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used for machine learning, giving a machine the ability to ‘think’, based on selected inputs.


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The ability for a machine to process spoken or written text and then devise and understand the
context of the information being passed. This is more than easy key word searches, but is actually
centered on contextual information being garnered from text or speech. Siri, Apple's iPhone
assistant, is an accessible example.


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The process of interviewing experts in a given field and extracting the rule base/heuristics which allow them to process information and make conclusions. This rule base is then coded in the AI system to give the computer the captured expertise of the human.


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Artificial Intelligence is used in a variety of industries and fields.


In the '''manufacturing industry''', the use of robots has increasingly become a standard practice. Selected functions are given to various robots, each working with the other as part of a larger goal. For example, AI can be used to maintain the cleanliness of a bottling factory. One robot is used to scan every bottle for its strength. Once a weak structured bottle is detected, it signals to another machine to knock that bottle off of the line. After a period of time, broken glass has accumulated in the designated broken glass area. Another robot waits for a preprogrammed amount of glass to accumulate, when it then comes out to clean all of the broken glass. This is all done without human intervention.


In the '''finance industry''', billions of dollars flow through the financial institutions. Due to off shore accounts, money laundering, and the vast number of ways employed to defraud the banks, AI is used to flag transactions that will require human intervention. These transactions may have errors that were created by the sender that will trigger an alert.


Any company that is '''customer service''' driven will also find use to employ AI. AI can be used as a first level support alternative to answer some of the most basic of questions. This approach allows the more difficult questions and problems to be addressed by human service representatives.


In '''national security''' enormous amounts of information in natural language processed by computers each day to evaluate the context of the conversations and/or writing to assess potential threats posed to the country.


In '''medicine''' in February 2013, IBM announced that Jeopardy winning Watson's software system's first commercial application would be for utilization management decisions in lung cancer treatment at Memorial Sloan–Kettering Cancer Center in conjunction with health insurance company WellPoint. IBM says that 90% of nurses in the field who use Watson now follow its guidance.


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The inability to learn from other people by either accepting or rejecting what they say as facts.


The inability to understand when to use proper means of communication at a given instant; weather it be seeing, reading, writing, or speaking.


As of this writing, the overall speed is slow. This is due to the vast amount of code involved to complete a simple task. For example, a programs designed to play a game can be very large due to the number of conditions that may exist in a given moment, i.e., where to move next in a checker game.


Machines are not sentient, they do not create spontaneous thought, cannot find humor or sadness in situations and cannot distinguish the importance of information on a personal level


Machines lack human self-awareness. Replicating self awareness means replicating the rather sophisticated types of “goal-oriented behavior” that define humans. Humans assign themselves goals, consider and choose steps to attain those goals and actively evaluate progress toward the goal. Humans who are self aware evaluate the factors hindering or facilitating progress toward the goal and then make adjustments. Often things don't turn out as humans expect they should based on available data, but humans then gather more data or just try something else.


Consider the invention of the light bulb. Edison and others tried many materials and scenarios some of which defied all known facts. Or consider the European explorers who sailed west to go east, defying the known fact the world was flat. It is human self awareness and goal-oriented behavior that usually makes great discoveries. Machines are usually limited to discovering new things by brute force, accessing known information and perhaps testing options over and over again until a solution is arrived at.


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Artificial Intelligence is its various forms is unlikely to ever exhibit human specific behaviors like:


*Dream, let alone understand or explain what it dreamed
*Acknowledge the presence of the almighty God
*Express emotion based on its surroundings
*Develop spontaneous thought devoid of conditional data
*Understand sarcasm, irony or humor
*Find the bridges for unrelated data without human intervention


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An expert system is a branch of artificial intelligence. It is used to solve very complex problems by emulating the decision making process of a human being. It utilizes knowledge engineering to encapsulate the rules of operations from human experts, than captures those rules into heuristics and rapidly processes mass amounts of data through the rule set. Forward chaining takes the data through the rule sets marking what conclusions can be drawn, Backward chaining takes the data through the rule set and if conclusions are drawn looks at the marked rules that were not fired to determine if the new conclusions will draw any further conclusions. Hence it is non-linear processing of data in the same manner that human processes information sets.


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An expert system:

*renders an unemotional response at all times
*reduces danger for humans
*can be designed to have expertise in many areas
*can explain in detail how a conclusion was derived
*can draw conclusions many times faster than a human
*allows the programmed knowledge of a subject matter expert to be applied to problems without the expert needing to be involved each time a problem is presented.


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Expert systems are used in the gaming industry; particularly for games that offer human vs. computer options. When playing against a computer, the expert system (the actual decision making engine of the game) is called to determine the next move given the current circumstance. In a game of chess, the professional moves of a grand master chess champion would be programmed, thus forming the expert system.


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Pathfinders are encouraged to seek a better understanding of artificial intelligence by discovering how it is being applied in real world scenarios and its impact in society. We suggest that after a brief discussion the Pathfinders go do individual research, keeping in mind that they are looking for places to visit that use AI (see next requirement). Each Pathfinder can then give an oral report of what they found, leading to a discussion.


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See previous guidance.
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{{bible verse
|book=Genesis
|chapter=1
|verse=26, 27
|text=And God said, Let us make man in our image, after our likeness: and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the earth, and over every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth. So God created man in his own image, in the image of God created he him; male and female created he them.
}}


{{bible verse
|book=Psalm
|chapter=139
|verse=
|text=
To the chief Musician, A Psalm of David.


1 O Lord, thou hast searched me, and known me.
2 Thou knowest my downsitting and mine uprising,
thou understandest my thought afar off.
3 Thou compassest my path and my lying down,
and art acquainted with all my ways.
4 For there is not a word in my tongue,
but, lo, O Lord, thou knowest it altogether.
5 Thou hast beset me behind and before,
and laid thine hand upon me.
6 Such knowledge is too wonderful for me;
it is high, I cannot attain unto it.
7 Whither shall I go from thy spirit?
or whither shall I flee from thy presence?
8 If I ascend up into heaven, thou art there:
if I make my bed in hell, behold, thou art there.
9 If I take the wings of the morning,
and dwell in the uttermost parts of the sea;
10 even there shall thy hand lead me,
and thy right hand shall hold me.
11 If I say, Surely the darkness shall cover me;
even the night shall be light about me.
12 Yea, the darkness hideth not from thee; but the night shineth as the day:
the darkness and the light are both alike to thee.
13 For thou hast possessed my reins:
thou hast covered me in my mother’s womb.
14 I will praise thee; for I am fearfully and wonderfully made:
marvellous are thy works;
and that my soul knoweth right well.
15 My substance was not hid from thee, when I was made in secret,
and curiously wrought in the lowest parts of the earth.
16 Thine eyes did see my substance, yet being unperfect;
and in thy book all my members were written,
which in continuance were fashioned,
when as yet there was none of them.
17 How precious also are thy thoughts unto me, O God!
how great is the sum of them!
18 If I should count them, they are more in number than the sand:
when I awake, I am still with thee.
19 Surely thou wilt slay the wicked, O God:
depart from me therefore, ye bloody men.
20 For they speak against thee wickedly,
and thine enemies take thy name in vain.
21 Do not I hate them, O Lord, that hate thee?
and am not I grieved with those that rise up against thee?
22 I hate them with perfect hatred:
I count them mine enemies.
23 Search me, O God, and know my heart:
try me, and know my thoughts:
24 and see if there be any wicked way in me,
and lead me in the way everlasting.
}}


{{bible verse
|book=Psalm
|chapter=8
|verse=3-6
|text=
3 When I consider thy heavens, the work of thy fingers,
the moon and the stars, which thou hast ordained;
4 what is man, that thou art mindful of him?
and the son of man, that thou visitest him?
5 For thou hast made him a little lower than the angels,
and hast crowned him with glory and honour.
6 Thou madest him to have dominion over the works of thy hands;
thou hast put all things under his feet:
}}


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==References== 
#http://www.aaai.org/home.html publishes quarterly newsletters, hosts conferences and is generally a good place to learn about the latest in this rapidly changing field.
#This documentary covers much of this honor, focused on Watson. Read the requirement, watch it taking notes, then review the questions again. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uDBZnaoJVlk
#https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_DeepMind
#https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence
#https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_Ix34_VE_eg&index=14&list=PLQrKRYaOk0npF8Xcs5pubAD4USmhV4_JV self driving race car getting as good as a driver


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AY Honors/Artificial Intelligence/Answer Key

2021-09-24T16:18:54Z

MBoismier:

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Artificial intelligence is man made intelligence using machines and software designed to perform given task and mimic the thinking process of a human being.


“The science of making machines do things that would require intelligence if done by men” – Dr. Marvin Minsky (MIT)


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The focus of this chart board is for the pathfinder to begin their research into the history of artificial intelligence and its path of acceptance as an academic discipline.


Should include more than modern AI


*4th Century BC – Aristotle invents syllogistic logic and deductive reasoning
*1206 – Al-Jazari designs what is beleved to be the first programmable humanoid robot
*1642 – Pascal creates first mechanical calculating machine
*1662 – Sir Samuel Morland devises Arithmetical machines
*1673 – Leibniz improves Pascal’s machines to add division and multiplication and devises Calculus to determine how reasoning can be decided mechanically
*1854 – George Boole develops binary algebra representing the laws of thought and creating Boolean expressions
*1936 – Alan Turing proposes the universal Turing Machine
*1943 – McCullock and Pitts publish “A logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity” laying the foundations of neural networks
*1956 – John McCarthy coined the term “Artificial Intelligence”
*1957 Newel & Simon (Carnegie Mellon) demonstrate the General Problem Solver
*1958 – John McCarthy invents LISP
*1964 – Danny Bobrow defends his dissertation at MIT on Natural Language Processing
*1968 - Minsky and Papert publish “Perceptrons” – demonstrating limits of simple neural nets
*1969 - Shank (Yale) defined conceptual dependency model of natural language understanding
*1972 – Comerauer develops PROLOG
*1976 – Lenat’s dissertation with the Automated Mathematician program demonstrates computer learning and discovery of interesting conjectures
*1980 – First AAAI (American Association of Artificial Intelligence) held at Stanford
*1987 – Minsky publishes “The Society of Mind” a description of the mind as a collection of cooperating agents
*1997 – Deep Blue defeats Garry Kasparov in a chess match
*2011 - IBM's Watson competed on Jeopardy! against former winners Brad Rutter and Ken Jennings and won $1 million using natural language processing.


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The ultimate goal of artificial intelligence is to create a device that is capable of making independent external decisions using a series of self driven internal instructions. In other words, a part of its objective is to make a computer perform more like a human.


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An android is an intelligent machine with a human appearance. Continued advancements in robotic technology have lighted the way for more improved designs that better impersonate human beings.


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a machine that is capable of displaying human-like general intelligence such as self awareness and consciousness.


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a machine that has the ability to express social skills and emotional skills based on the reactions of other people that it may come into contact with.


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The processes of a machine gathering data that it knows and hypothesizing independent/spontaneous new information that is relevant to the problem


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a process of a computer evaluating input and extracting new knowledge or heuristics from the observation of existing data.


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a machine's ability to move and locate objects, including itself.


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the ability of a machine to set goals, and then move forward to achieve those goals.


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a machine's ability to use its own inputs like sensors, cameras, and microphones to develop its own conclusions.


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a machine's ability to search and locate the shortest path.


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a machine's ability to make identification based on a series of inputs.


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used for machine learning, giving a machine the ability to ‘think’, based on selected inputs.


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The ability for a machine to process spoken or written text and then devise and understand the
context of the information being passed. This is more than easy key word searches, but is actually
centered on contextual information being garnered from text or speech. Siri, Apple's iPhone
assistant, is an accessable example.


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The process of interviewing experts in a given field and extracting the rule base/heuristics which allow them to process information and make conclusions. This rule base is then coded in the AI system to give the computer the captured expertise of the human.


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Artificial Intelligence is used in a variety of industries and fields.


In the '''manufacturing industry''', the use of robots has increasingly become a standard practice. Selected functions are given to various robots, each working with the other as part of a larger goal. For example, AI can be used to maintain the cleanliness of a bottling factory. One robot is used to scan every bottle for its strength. Once a weak structured bottle is detected, it signals to another machine to knock that bottle off of the line. After a period of time, broken glass has accumulated in the designated broken glass area. Another robot waits for a preprogrammed amount of glass to accumulate, when it then comes out to clean all of the broken glass. This is all done without human intervention.


In the '''finance industry''', billions of dollars flow through the financial institutions. Due to off shore accounts, money laundering, and the vast number of ways employed to defraud the banks, AI is used to flag transactions that will require human intervention. These transactions may have errors that were created by the sender that will trigger an alert.


Any company that is '''customer service''' driven will also find use to employ AI. AI can be used as a first level support alternative to answer some of the most basic of questions. This approach allows the more difficult questions and problems to be addressed by human service representatives.


In '''national security''' enormous amounts of information in natural language processed by computers each day to evaluate the context of the conversations and/or writing to assess potential threats posed to the country.


In '''medicine''' in February 2013, IBM announced that Jeopardy winning Watson's software system's first commercial application would be for utilization management decisions in lung cancer treatment at Memorial Sloan–Kettering Cancer Center in conjunction with health insurance company WellPoint. IBM says that 90% of nurses in the field who use Watson now follow its guidance.


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The inability to learn from other people by either accepting or rejecting what they say as facts.


The inability to understand when to use proper means of communication at a given instant; weather it be seeing, reading, writing, or speaking.


As of this writing, the overall speed is slow. This is due to the vast amount of code involved to complete a simple task. For example, a programs designed to play a game can be very large due to the number of conditions that may exist in a given moment, i.e., where to move next in a checker game.


Machines are not sentient, they do not create spontaneous thought, cannot find humor or sadness in situations and cannot distinguish the importance of information on a personal level


Machines lack human self-awareness. Replicating self awareness means replicating the rather sophisticated types of “goal-oriented behavior” that define humans. Humans assign themselves goals, consider and choose steps to attain those goals and actively evaluate progress toward the goal. Humans who are self aware evaluate the factors hindering or facilitating progress toward the goal and then make adjustments. Often things don't turn out as humans expect they should based on available data, but humans then gather more data or just try something else.


Consider the invention of the light bulb. Edison and others tried many materials and scenarios some of which defied all known facts. Or consider the European explorers who sailed west to go east, defying the known fact the world was flat. It is human self awareness and goal-oriented behavior that usually makes great discoveries. Machines are usually limited to discovering new things by brute force, accessing known information and perhaps testing options over and over again until a solution is arrived at.


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Artificial Intelligence is its various forms is unlikely to ever exhibit human specific behaviors like:


*Dream, let alone understand or explain what it dreamed
*Acknowledge the presence of the almighty God
*Express emotion based on its surroundings
*Develop spontaneous thought devoid of conditional data
*Understand sarcasm, irony or humor
*Find the bridges for unrelated data without human intervention


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An expert system is a branch of artificial intelligence. It is used to solve very complex problems by emulating the decision making process of a human being. It utilizes knowledge engineering to encapsulate the rules of operations from human experts, than captures those rules into heuristics and rapidly processes mass amounts of data through the rule set. Forward chaining takes the data through the rule sets marking what conclusions can be drawn, Backward chaining takes the data through the rule set and if conclusions are drawn looks at the marked rules that were not fired to determine if the new conclusions will draw any further conclusions. Hence it is non-linear processing of data in the same manner that human processes information sets.


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An expert system:

*renders an unemotional response at all times
*reduces danger for humans
*can be designed to have expertise in many areas
*can explain in detail how a conclusion was derived
*can draw conclusions many times faster than a human
*allows the programmed knowledge of a subject matter expert to be applied to problems without the expert needing to be involved each time a problem is presented.


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Expert systems are used in the gaming industry; particularly for games that offer human vs. computer options. When playing against a computer, the expert system (the actual decision making engine of the game) is called to determine the next move given the current circumstance. In a game of chess, the professional moves of a grand master chess champion would be programmed, thus forming the expert system.


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Pathfinders are encouraged to seek a better understanding of artificial intelligence by discovering how it is being applied in real world scenarios and its impact in society. We suggest that after a brief discussion the Pathfinders go do individual research, keeping in mind that they are looking for places to visit that use AI (see next requirement). Each Pathfinder can then give an oral report of what they found, leading to a discussion.


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See previous guidance.
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{{bible verse
|book=Genesis
|chapter=1
|verse=26, 27
|text=And God said, Let us make man in our image, after our likeness: and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the earth, and over every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth. So God created man in his own image, in the image of God created he him; male and female created he them.
}}


{{bible verse
|book=Psalm
|chapter=139
|verse=
|text=
To the chief Musician, A Psalm of David.


1 O Lord, thou hast searched me, and known me.
2 Thou knowest my downsitting and mine uprising,
thou understandest my thought afar off.
3 Thou compassest my path and my lying down,
and art acquainted with all my ways.
4 For there is not a word in my tongue,
but, lo, O Lord, thou knowest it altogether.
5 Thou hast beset me behind and before,
and laid thine hand upon me.
6 Such knowledge is too wonderful for me;
it is high, I cannot attain unto it.
7 Whither shall I go from thy spirit?
or whither shall I flee from thy presence?
8 If I ascend up into heaven, thou art there:
if I make my bed in hell, behold, thou art there.
9 If I take the wings of the morning,
and dwell in the uttermost parts of the sea;
10 even there shall thy hand lead me,
and thy right hand shall hold me.
11 If I say, Surely the darkness shall cover me;
even the night shall be light about me.
12 Yea, the darkness hideth not from thee; but the night shineth as the day:
the darkness and the light are both alike to thee.
13 For thou hast possessed my reins:
thou hast covered me in my mother’s womb.
14 I will praise thee; for I am fearfully and wonderfully made:
marvellous are thy works;
and that my soul knoweth right well.
15 My substance was not hid from thee, when I was made in secret,
and curiously wrought in the lowest parts of the earth.
16 Thine eyes did see my substance, yet being unperfect;
and in thy book all my members were written,
which in continuance were fashioned,
when as yet there was none of them.
17 How precious also are thy thoughts unto me, O God!
how great is the sum of them!
18 If I should count them, they are more in number than the sand:
when I awake, I am still with thee.
19 Surely thou wilt slay the wicked, O God:
depart from me therefore, ye bloody men.
20 For they speak against thee wickedly,
and thine enemies take thy name in vain.
21 Do not I hate them, O Lord, that hate thee?
and am not I grieved with those that rise up against thee?
22 I hate them with perfect hatred:
I count them mine enemies.
23 Search me, O God, and know my heart:
try me, and know my thoughts:
24 and see if there be any wicked way in me,
and lead me in the way everlasting.
}}


{{bible verse
|book=Psalm
|chapter=8
|verse=3-6
|text=
3 When I consider thy heavens, the work of thy fingers,
the moon and the stars, which thou hast ordained;
4 what is man, that thou art mindful of him?
and the son of man, that thou visitest him?
5 For thou hast made him a little lower than the angels,
and hast crowned him with glory and honour.
6 Thou madest him to have dominion over the works of thy hands;
thou hast put all things under his feet:
}}


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==References== 
#http://www.aaai.org/home.html publishes quarterly newsletters, hosts conferences and is generally a good place to learn about the latest in this rapidly changing field.
#This documentary covers much of this honor, focused on Watson. Read the requirement, watch it taking notes, then review the questions again. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uDBZnaoJVlk
#https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_DeepMind
#https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence
#https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_Ix34_VE_eg&index=14&list=PLQrKRYaOk0npF8Xcs5pubAD4USmhV4_JV self driving race car getting as good as a driver


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AY Honors/Weather - Advanced/Answer Key

2021-09-24T15:46:07Z

MBoismier:

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===Cyclonic Systems=== 
Extratropical cyclones, sometimes called mid-latitude cyclones, are a group of cyclones defined as synoptic scale low pressure weather systems that occur in the middle latitudes of the Earth having neither tropical nor polar characteristics, and are connected with fronts and horizontal gradients in temperature and dew point otherwise known as "baroclinic zones". Extratropical cyclones are the everyday phenomena which, along with anticyclones, drive the weather over much of the Earth, producing anything from cloudiness and mild showers to heavy gales and thunderstorms.

Extratropical cyclones can bring mild weather with a little rain and surface winds of 15–30 km/h (10–20 mph), or they can be cold and dangerous with torrential rain and winds exceeding 119 km/h (74 mph), (sometimes referred to as windstorms in Europe). The band of precipitation that is associated with the warm front is often extensive. In mature extratropical cyclones, an area known as the comma head on the northwest periphery of the surface low can be a region of heavy precipitation, frequent thunderstorms, and thundersnows. Cyclones tend to move along a predictable path at a moderate rate of progress. During fall, winter, and spring, the atmosphere over continents can be cold enough through the depth of the troposphere to cause snowfall.
===Anticyclonic Systems=== 
An anticyclonic storm is a weather storm where winds around the storm flow contrary to the direction dictated by the Coriolis effect about a region of low pressure. In the northern hemisphere, anticyclonic storms involve clockwise wind flow; in the southern hemisphere, they involve counterclockwise wind flow.


Anticyclonic storms usually form around high-pressure systems. These do not "contradict" the Coriolis effect; it predicts such anticyclonic flow about high-pressure regions. Anticyclonic storms, as high-pressure systems, usually accompany cold weather and are frequently a factor in large snowstorms.


Anticyclonic tornadoes often occur; while tornadoes' vortices are low-pressure regions, this occurs because tornadoes occur on a small enough scale such that the Coriolis effect is negligible.


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===Cold Fronts=== 
[[Image:Cold front symbol.svg|thumb|400px|The symbol of a cold front: a blue line with triangles pointing in the direction of travel.]]
A cold front is defined as the leading edge of a cooler and drier mass of air. The air with greater density wedges under the less dense warmer air, lifting it, which can cause the formation a narrow line of showers and thunderstorms when enough moisture is present. This upward motion causes lowered pressure along the cold front. On weather maps, the surface position of the cold front is marked with the symbol of a blue line of triangles/spikes (pips) pointing in the direction of travel. Cold fronts can move up to twice as fast as warm fronts, and produce sharper changes in weather than warm fronts, since cold air is denser than warm air it rapidly replaces the warm air preceding the boundary. Cold fronts are typically accompanied by a narrow band of showers and thunderstorms. Cold fronts are usually associated with an area of low pressure, and sometimes, a warm front.

===Warm Fronts=== 
[[Image:Warm front symbol.svg|thumb|400px|The symbol of a cold front: a line with red semicircles pointing in the direction of the advancement of the front.]]
A warm front is defined as the leading edge of a mass of warm air. Warm fronts move more slowly than the cold front which usually follows due to the fact that cold air is more dense, and harder to remove from the Earth's surface. If the warm air mass is stable, clouds ahead of the warm front are mostly stratiform and rainfall gradually increases as the front approaches. At the front itself, the clouds can reach the surface as fog. Clearing and warming is usually rapid after frontal passage. If the warm air mass is unstable, thunderstorms may be embedded among the stratiform clouds ahead of the front, and after frontal passage, thundershowers may continue.


In the northern hemisphere a warm front usually causes a shift of wind from southeast to southwest and in the southern hemisphere from northeast to northwest.


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[[Image:Chinook wind.jpg|Adiabatic warming of downward moving air produces the warm Chinook wind]]
Chinook winds, often just called chinooks, are winds in the interior West of North America, where the Canadian Prairies and Great Plains meet various mountain ranges. Southeast of the mountains, on the British Columbia Coast and in the Puget Sound area, it is a warm, very wet, southwesterly wind, likely to bring rain or snow. Northeast of the mountains, it is warm and dry, after being stripped of its moisture by the mountains in its path.


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The trade winds are a pattern of wind that are found in bands around the Earth's equatorial region. The trade winds are the prevailing winds in the tropics, blowing from the high-pressure area in the horse latitudes towards the low-pressure area around the equator. The trade winds blow predominantly from the northeast in the northern hemisphere and from the southeast in the southern hemisphere.


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[[Image:IntertropicalConvergenceZone-EO.jpg|thumb|250px|The thunderstorms of the Intertropical Convergence Zone form a line across the eastern Pacific Ocean.]]
The Belt of Calms is more properly known as the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). It is also known as the Intertropical Front, Monsoon trough, Doldrums or the Equatorial Convergence Zone, is a belt of low pressure girdling Earth at the equator. It is formed by the vertical ascent of warm, moist air from the latitudes above and below the equator.
[[Image:ITCZ january-july.png|thumb|250px|Position of the ITCZ in July (red) and in January (blue).]]
The air is drawn into the intertropical convergence zone by the action of the Hadley cell, a macroscale atmospheric feature which is part of the Earth's heat and moisture distribution system. It is transported aloft by the convective activity of thunderstorms; regions in the intertropical convergence zone receive precipitation more than 200 days in a year.


The location of the intertropical convergence zone varies over time. Over land, it moves back and forth across the equator following the sun's zenith point. Over the oceans, where the convergence zone is better defined, the seasonal cycle is more subtle, as the convection is constrained by the distribution of ocean temperatures.


Sometimes, a double ITCZ forms, with one located north and another south of the equator. When this occurs, a narrow ridge of high pressure forms between the two convergence zones, one of which is usually stronger than the other.


Variation in the location of the intertropical convergence zone drastically affects rainfall in many equatorial nations, resulting in the wet and dry seasons of the tropics rather than the cold and warm seasons of higher latitudes. Longer term changes in the intertropical convergence zone can result in severe droughts or flooding in nearby areas.


Within the ITCZ the average winds are slight, unlike the zones north and south of the equator where the trade winds feed in. Early sailors named this belt of calm the doldrums because of the inactivity and stagnation they found themselves in after days of no wind. To find oneself becalmed in this region in a hot and muggy climate could mean death in an era when wind was the force to propel ships across the ocean.


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A tornado is a violently rotating column of air which is in contact with both a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, a cumulus cloud base and the surface of the earth. Tornadoes come in many sizes but are typically in the form of a visible condensation funnel, whose narrow end touches the earth and is often encircled by a cloud of debris.


Most tornadoes have wind speeds of {{units|177 km/h|110 mph}} or less, are approximately {{units|75 meters|250 feet}} across, and travel {{units|several kilometers|a few miles}} before dissipating. Some attain wind speeds of more than {{units|480 km/h|300 mph}}, stretch more than {{units|1.6 kilometers|a mile}} across, and stay on the ground for {{units|more than 100km|60 miles}}.


Although tornadoes have been observed on every continent except Antarctica, most occur in the United States.


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[[Image:Bow echo diagram.svg|thumb|200px|Typical development of thunderstorms (a) into a bow echo (b, c) and into a comma echo (d). Dashed line indicates axis of greatest potential for downbursts. Arrows indicate wind flow relative to the storm. Area C is most prone to supporting tornado development.]]
A squall line is a line of severe thunderstorms that can form along or ahead of a cold front. In the early 20th century, the term was used as a synonym for cold front. It contains heavy precipitation, hail, frequent lightning, strong straight line winds, and possibly tornadoes and waterspouts. Severe weather along squall lines can be expected if it displays a line echo wave pattern (LEWP) or if the line is in the shape of a bow echo.


The best indication of the presence of severe weather along a squall line is its morphing into a line echo wave pattern, or LEWP. A LEWP is a special configuration in a line of convective storms that indicates the presence of a low pressure area and the possibility of damaging winds, large hail, and tornadoes. At each kink along the LEWP is a mesoscale low pressure area. In response to very strong outflow southwest of the mesoscale low, an equatorward portion of the line bulges outward forming a bow echo. Behind this bulge lies the mesoscale high pressure area.
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A typhoon is a tropical cyclone that originates in the Western Pacific Ocean, and having winds in excess of {{units|118 km/h|74 mph}}.


A tropical cyclone is a meteorological term for a storm system characterized by a low pressure system center and thunderstorms that produces strong wind and flooding rain. A tropical cyclone feeds on the heat released when moist air rises and the water vapor it contains condenses. They are fueled by a different heat mechanism than other cyclonic windstorms such as nor'easters, European windstorms, and polar lows, leading to their classification as "warm core" storm systems.


The adjective "tropical" refers to both the geographic origin of these systems, which form almost exclusively in tropical regions of the globe, and their formation in Maritime Tropical air masses. The noun "cyclone" refers to such storms' cyclonic nature, with counterclockwise rotation in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise rotation in the Southern Hemisphere. Depending on their location and strength, tropical cyclones are referred to by various other names, such as hurricane, typhoon, tropical storm, cyclonic storm, and tropical depression.


While tropical cyclones can produce extremely powerful winds and torrential rain, they are also able to produce high waves and damaging storm surge. They develop over large bodies of warm water, and lose their strength if they move over land. This is the reason coastal regions can receive significant damage from a tropical cyclone, while inland regions are relatively safe from receiving strong winds. Heavy rains, however, can produce significant flooding inland, and storm surges can produce extensive coastal flooding up to {{units|40 km|25 miles}} from the coastline. Although their effects on human populations can be devastating, tropical cyclones can also relieve drought conditions. They also carry heat and energy away from the tropics and transport it towards temperate latitudes, which makes them an important part of the global atmospheric circulation mechanism. As a result, tropical cyclones help to maintain equilibrium in the Earth's troposphere, and to maintain a relatively stable and warm temperature worldwide.


Many tropical cyclones develop when the atmospheric conditions around a weak disturbance in the atmosphere are favorable. Others form when other types of cyclones acquire tropical characteristics. Tropical systems are then moved by steering winds in the troposphere; if the conditions remain favorable, the tropical disturbance intensifies, and can even develop an eye. On the other end of the spectrum, if the conditions around the system deteriorate or the tropical cyclone makes landfall, the system weakens and eventually dissipates.


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A hurricane is a tropical cyclone originating in the Atlantic Ocean and having winds in excess of {{units|118km/h|74 mph}}. See the discussion above on Typhoons for more details on tropical cyclones.


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[[Image:Train stuck in snow.jpg|thumb|250px|Locomptive stuck in the snow, March 29, 1881 in western Minnesota, not far from DeSmet.]]
A blizzard is a severe winter storm condition characterized by low temperatures, strong winds, and heavy blowing snow. Blizzards are formed when a high pressure system, also known as a ridge, interacts with a low pressure system; this results in the advection of air from the high pressure zone into the low pressure area. The term blizzard is sometimes misused by news media to describe a large winter storm that does not actually satisfy official blizzard criteria.


Because the factors involved with the classification of winter storms are complex, there are many different definitions of the word blizzard. A major consensus is that in order to be classified as a blizzard, as opposed to merely a winter storm, the weather must meet several conditions: There must be falling or blowing snow, strong winds, and cold or falling temperatures. What the measurements must amount to for a blizzard to be classified as such depends on where you are.


The winter of 1880–81, was referred to in the Dakotas for many years afterward as the "Hard Winter". Author Laura Ingalls Wilder devoted her book The Long Winter to the telling of that winter's story, a narrative of one successive blizzard after another, and the effects on her family and those around her. The book is only slightly fictionalized, as far as her descriptions of the weather. Her tale of two men from the town of DeSmet, South Dakota going after some wheat rumored to be stored some miles south of DeSmet in February of 1881 is true (Ingalls later married one of the men, Almanzo Wilder). It was speculated at the time that if the two men had not found and brought back the wheat, the residents would have starved before the eventual thaw in April of 1881 which allowed the railroads to resume service. The snowbound locomotive pictured above was photographed on March 29, 1881 in western Minnesota, not far from DeSmet.


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[[Image:Playground after icestorm.jpg|thumb|300px|Playground after an ice storm]]
An ice storm is a type of winter storm characterized by freezing rain.


When rain falls onto freezing-cold ground, conditions can become dangerous.


The cold rain freezes as it touches the ground and other surfaces. This freezing rain covers everything with heavy, smooth ice. The ice-covered roads become slippery and dangerous. Driving becomes extremely hazardous as the ice causes most vehicles to skid out of control, which can cause devastating car crashes as well as pile ups. Even pedestrians are severely affected as sidewalks become slippery, which can cause people to slip and fall and outside stairs can become an extreme injury hazard.


In addition to hazardous driving/walking conditions, branches or even whole trees may break from the weight of ice. Falling branches can block roads, tear down power and telephone lines and cause other damage. Even without overhead tree branches, the weight of the ice itself can snap power lines, and power poles as well (even the big steel frame electrical pylons have crumbled under the weight of ice before). This can leave people without power for as long as several days to even weeks. According to most meteorologists, just one quarter of an inch of ice accumulation can add about 500 pounds of weight per line span. Damage from ice storms is highly capable of shutting down entire metropolitan areas.


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===Registering Thermometer=== 
[[Image:Max Min Thermometer.JPG|250px|right|thumb|A Maximum Minimum thermometer, also known as Six’s thermometer after its inventor. The scales are Fahrenheit on the inside of the U and Celsius on the outside. The current temperature is 23 degrees Celsius, The maximum recorded is 25, and the minimum is 15, both read from the base of the small markers in each arm of the U tube. The bulbs are hidden by a plastic housing.]]


A registering thermometer is a thermometer which can measure the maximum and minimum temperature during a given time. It is also known as a '''Maximum minimum thermometer'''. It is still in common use wherever a simple way is needed to measure the extremes of temperature at a location.


There are many ways to construct a registering thermometer. Electronic thermometers can simply record the extremes digitally in a computer memory. However these were not commonly available in times past, so scientists had to come up with mechanical means of building registering thermometers. One such method, described below, was devised by James Six.


Six's thermometer consists of a U-shaped capillary tube with two separate temperature readings, one for the maximum temperature and one for the minimum temperature. There are bulbs at the top of each arm of the U-shaped tube. The one at the top of the minimum reading scale contains alcohol, the other contains a vacuum or low pressure alcohol vapor.


In the bend of the U is a section of mercury which is pushed around the tube by the expansion and contraction of the alcohol in the first bulb. It is the alcohol which measures the temperature, the mercury indicates the temperature reading on both scales.


At any given time the position of the mercury should be the same on both the maximum and minimum scales. If not then the instrument scales are not correctly positioned.


As the mercury moves it pushes two small steel markers which are sprung into the tube. They record the furthest point reached by the mercury in each arm of the tube. When the temperature reverses and the mercury is moved in the opposite direction by the expansion or contraction of the alcohol, the sprung markers remain in the tube at the furthest position they have been pushed by the mercury. They thus record the extremes of temperature experienced by the device since it was last reset.


The markers are reset by using a small magnet which can drag the markers along the tube so that they again rest on the surface of the mercury. In some designs the tube is horizontal and the markers un-sprung so the device is reset by turning it to the vertical so that gravity returns the markers to the mercury.


Its important to note that the alcohol is used as the thermometric liquid, while the mercury only serves as an indicator.

===Registering barograph=== 
[[Image:Barogramm.jpg|thumb|300px|A barogram, produced by a barograph.]]
A barograph is a recording aneroid barometer, which measures barometric pressure. It produces a paper or foil chart called a barogram that records the barometric pressure over time.


Barographs use one or more aneroid cells acting through a gear or lever train to drive a recording arm that has at its extreme end either a scribe or a pen. A scribe records on smoked foil while a pen records on paper. The recording material is mounted on a cylindrical drum which is rotated slowly by clockwork. Commonly, the drum makes one revolution per day, per week, or per month and the rotation rate can often be selected by the user.
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===Hygrometer=== 
Hygrometers are instruments used for measuring humidity. A simple form of a hygrometer is specifically known as a "psychrometer" and consists of two thermometers, one of which includes a dry bulb and the other of which includes a bulb that is kept wet to measure wet-bulb temperature. Evaporation from the wet bulb lowers the temperature, so that the wet-bulb thermometer usually shows a lower temperature than that of the dry-bulb thermometer, which measures dry-bulb temperature. When the air temperature is below freezing, however, the wet bulb is covered with a thin coating of ice and yet may be warmer than the dry bulb. Relative humidity is computed from the ambient temperature as shown by the dry-bulb thermometer and the difference in temperatures as shown by the wet-bulb and dry-bulb thermometers. Relative humidity can also be determined by locating the intersection of the wet- and dry-bulb temperatures on a psychrometric chart (see below). One device that uses the wet/dry bulb method is the sling psychrometer, where the thermometers are attached to a handle or length of rope and spun around in the air for a few minutes.


[[Image:PsychrometricChart-SeaLevel-SI.jpg|thumb|600px|center|Psychometric Chart. To read, find the intersection between the dry bulb temperature (vertical, blue lines lines) and the wet-bulb temperature (slanted, blue lines), and read the relative humidity from the curved, red lines. Click to enlarge]]
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===Anemometer=== 
[[Image:Anemometer dubendorf.jpg|thumb|250px|Cup anemometer]]
The simplest type of anemometer is the cup anemometer, invented (1846) by Dr. John Thomas Romney Robinson, of Armagh Observatory. It consisted of four hemispherical cups each mounted on one end of four horizontal arms, which in turn were mounted at equal angles to each other on a vertical shaft. The air flow past the cups in any horizontal direction turned the cups in a manner that was proportional to the wind speed. Therefore counting the turns of the cups over a set time period produced the average wind speed for a wide range of speeds.


The three cup anemometer developed by the Canadian John Patterson in 1926 and subsequent cup improvements by Brevoort & Joiner of the USA in 1935 led to a cupwheel design which was linear and had an error of less than 3% up to 60 mph. Patterson found that each cup produced maximum torque when it was at 45 degrees to the wind flow. The three cup anemometer also had a more constant torque and responded more quickly to gusts than the four cup anemometer.


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[[Image:NWS_weather_fronts.svg|thumb|left|A guide to the symbols for weather fronts that may be found on a weather map:<br/>
1. cold front<br/>
2. warm front<br/>
3. stationary front<br/>
4. occluded front<br/>
5. surface trough<br/>
6. squall line<br/>
7. dry line<br/>
8. tropical wave<br/>
]]
[[Image:Wind barbs.gif|thumb|300px|right|Wind barbs]]

A weather map is a tool used to display information quickly showing the analysis of various meteorological quantities at various levels of the atmosphere. Maps utilizing isotherms show temperature gradients, which can help locate weather fronts. Isotach maps, analyzing lines of equal wind speed, on a constant pressure surface of 300 mb or 250 mb show where the jet stream is located. Two-dimensional streamlines based on wind speeds at various levels show areas of convergence and divergence in the wind field, which are helpful in determining the location of features within the wind pattern. A popular type of surface weather map is the surface weather analysis, which plots isobars to depict areas of high pressure and low pressure.


Winds have a standard notation when plotted on weather maps. More than a century ago, winds were plotted as arrows, with feathers on just one side depicting five knots of wind, while feathers on both sides depicted 10 knots (19 km/h) of wind. The notation changed to that of half of an arrow, with half of a wind barb indicating five knots, a full barb ten knots, and a pennant flag fifty knots.


An isobaric analysis involves the construction of lines of equal mean sea level pressure on a geographic map. The innermost closed lines indicate the positions of relative maxima and minima in the pressure field. The minima are called low pressure areas while the maxima are called high pressure areas. Highs are often shown as H's whereas lows are often shown as L's. Elongated areas of low pressure, or troughs, are sometimes plotted as thick, brown dashed lines down the trough axis.


[[Image:Surface analysis.gif|thumb|600px|Surface Weather Map]]
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The amount of water that air can hold depends on the temperature. The hotter it gets, the more water the air can hold. At any given temperature, the air can become so saturated with water that it cannot hold any more. Water will not evaporate under this condition.


The ratio of how much water is in the air compared to how much ''could'' be in the air is the relative humidity. The relative humidity is 100% when the air can hold no more water.


Recall that the air can hold more water when it is warm as compared to when it is cold. Therefore, if the temperature changes while the amount of water in the air remains constant, the humidity will change. As the air warms, the relative humidity will drop. As it cools, the relative humidity will rise.


The dew point is the temperature for which the relative humidity will be 100% assuming the amount of water in the air remains unchanged. If the temperature drops below the dew point, the air will no longer be able to hold all the water, so it condenses out in the form of dew or fog.


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[[Image:Edge of Space.png|left|thumb]]
The Earth's atmosphere consists, from the top down, of the exosphere, thermosphere, mesosphere, stratosphere, and the troposphere.

===Exosphere=== 
The exosphere is the uppermost layer of the atmosphere. On Earth, its lower boundary at the edge of the thermosphere is estimated to be 500 km to 1000 km above the Earth's surface, and its upper boundary at about 10,000 km. It is only from the exosphere that atmospheric gases, atoms, and molecules can, to any appreciable extent, escape into space. The main gases within the exosphere are the lightest gases, mainly hydrogen, with some helium, carbon dioxide, and atomic oxygen near the exobase. The exosphere is the last layer before space.

===Thermosphere=== 
The thermosphere is the layer of the Earth's atmosphere directly above the mesosphere and directly below the exosphere. Within this layer, ultraviolet radiation causes ionization. It is the fourth atmospheric layer from earth.

The thermosphere begins about 80 km above the earth. At these high altitudes, the residual atmospheric gases sort into strata according to molecular mass. Thermospheric temperatures increase with altitude due to absorption of highly energetic solar radiation by the small amount of residual oxygen still present. Temperatures are highly dependent on solar activity, and can rise to 2,000°C. Radiation causes the air particles in this layer to become electrically charged, enabling radio waves to bounce off and be received beyond the horizon.
===Mesosphere=== 
The mesosphere is the layer of the Earth's atmosphere that is directly above the stratosphere and directly below the ionosphere. The mesosphere is located from about 50 km to 80-90 km altitude above Earth's surface. Within this layer, temperature decreases with increasing altitude. The main dynamical features in this region are atmospheric tides, internal atmospheric gravity waves (usually just called "gravity waves") and planetary waves. Most of these waves and tides are excited in the troposphere and lower stratosphere and propagate upward to the mesosphere. In the mesosphere, gravity-wave amplitudes can become so large that the waves become unstable and dissipate. This dissipation deposits momentum into the mesosphere and largely drives its global circulation.
===Stratosphere===
The stratosphere is the second layer of Earth's atmosphere, just above the troposphere, and below the mesosphere. It is stratified in temperature, with warmer layers higher up and cooler layers farther down. This is in contrast to the troposphere near the Earth's surface, which is cooler higher up and warmer farther down. The border of the troposphere and stratosphere, the tropopause, is marked by where this inversion begins, which in terms of atmospheric thermodynamics is the equilibrium level. The stratosphere is situated between about 10 km (6 miles) and 50 km (31 miles) altitude above the surface at moderate latitudes, while at the poles it starts at about 8 km (5 miles) altitude.
===Troposphere===
The troposphere is the lowest portion of Earth's atmosphere. It contains approximately 75% of the atmosphere's mass and almost all of its water vapor and aerosols.


The average depth of the troposphere is about 11 km in the middle latitudes. It is deeper in the tropical regions (up to 20 km) and shallower near the poles (about 7 km in summer, indistinct in winter).
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This requirement is very similar to one found in the [[Investiture_Achievement/Explorer/Nature_Study|Explorer IA curriculum]], except that Explorers are required to keep these records for two weeks and take readings twice a day. You can also combine these requirements with those in the [[AY Honors/Weather|Weather]] honor. If you forget to take records for a day, do not despair. As long as you have 21 readings, you can count this as three weeks.
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If you chose to make a rain gauge in the [[AY Honors/Weather|Weather]] honor, you can use that here. Otherwise, you can find official records online in many places, including [http://www.wunderground.com/ The Weather Underground]. Enter your zip code, and all the readings needed will be displayed (except for cloud formations).


You can download a tracking chart here and give one to each of your students.
http://www.pathfindersonline.org/pdf/resources/weather_tracking_chart.pdf


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If you decide to build a barometer, you can use official readings to calibrate it.


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Note the cloud types (Cirrus, Stratus, Cumulus, or Nimbus).
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Unless you have a registering thermometer or a digital thermometer that records the daily extremes, this will have to come from official records.
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If you make your own anemometer, be aware that the reading will vary substantially throughout the day. Therefore, you should not be discouraged if your readings and the official readings to not agree.
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When you record the day's weather, jot down the forecast as well. The comparisons can be made the next day or at the end of the three week period.


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Man has a greater impact on the climate than on the weather. The weather is the day-to-day conditions, while the climate covers long term averages. Man's production of greenhouse gases (such as carbon dioxide) has had and is having an effect on the global climate. These changes affect rainfall (increases in some areas, decreases in others) and the severity of storms.


Note too that the temperature in the city is invariably warmer than the temperature in the outlying areas. This is mostly because of pavement which readily absorbs heat during the day and then releases it during the night.


Dams create reservoirs which facilitate more evaporation than if the river were allowed to flow naturally. This increases both humidity as well as rainfall.


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==References== 
[[Category:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Do at home|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]
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AY Honors/Weather - Advanced/Answer Key

2021-09-24T15:45:11Z

MBoismier:

AY Honors/Weather - Advanced/Answer Key

2021-09-24T15:44:36Z

MBoismier:

AY Honors/Weather - Advanced/Answer Key

2021-09-24T15:43:47Z

MBoismier:

AY Honors/Worms - Advanced/Answer Key

2021-09-24T15:36:44Z

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The Monogenea, Trematoda, and Cestoda are the three major classes of parasitic flatworms, though the Turbellaria used to be considered a part of this class*


Monogeneans are largely ectoparasites on vertebrates like fishes; trematodes are the flukes, most of which live inside the organs of a variety of vertebrates as adults; and cestodes are the tapeworms, living in the intestines of a variety of vertebrates as adults (this is why your pets get annual shots—so that they don’t experience cestodes or trematodes—otherwise, pets could die as a result of an infestation of these worms.)


All Platyhelminthes are hermaphroditic in nature, meaning they can fertilize themselves.


*Turbellarians are, for the most part, free-living and non-parasitic, and thus do not in reality conform consistently with the rest of this class which is parasitic in nature.


For sake of completeness, it should be noted that the Monogenea are listed only on the most recent, scientific websites as part of the platyhelminthes classification. Most websites still refer to the pre-1999 classification of the platyhelminthes, making Turbellaria a class within that classification.


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Nematodes are also known as roundworms or eel worms. Examples include Lungworms, Hairworms, the Potato cyst, and stomach worms.


There are hundreds of types of nematodes.


There are three types of lifecycles present simply in the portion of this classification that infect plants:


Nematodes that are migratory ectoparasites are those that find plants as hosts (plant-parasitic). Migratory ectoparasites only feed on the surface cells of the plant (they don’t burrow into the plant). Pin, ring, and mint nematodes are examples of this type of nematode.


Their lifecycle: Eggs are laid only in the soil and develop until a first stage juvenile nematode is present. This nematode molts for the first time while still within the egg and it is the second stage juvenile which emerges from the egg into the soil. Moving through the soil, this nematode finds a root and inserts its stylet into one of the surface (epidermal) cells on the root surface. After feeding for some period of time, the nematode withdraws its stylet and moves on to feed in a new location. When the nematode has grown to a certain size, it molts a second time to become a third stage juvenile and later a third time to become a fourth stage juvenile. After a fourth and final molt, the nematode becomes an adult.


Migratory endoparasites are similar to the Migratory ectoparasites, except for the fact that they burrow into the plant to feed. Migratory endoparasites lay the eggs inside the host plants. The first stage juvenile molts inside the egg. The egg hatches once the juvenile has entered its second stage. Once released into the cortex (inside) of a plant, the juvenile will molt three more times, becoming either male or female. The eggs of the female will be laid in the cortex of the plant host At any stage, juveniles may move to (hence the term migratory) and infect new plants.


Sedentary endoparasites enter their host species setting up a permanent feeding station. Eventually a mature female will lay her eggs inside the host plants. The first stage juvenile molts inside the egg. he egg hatches once the juvenile has entered its second stage. This second stage is the ONLY stage that is infectious. It will leave the host plant and burrow into a plant, and release enzymes that change the chemical composition of the plant cells surrounding it. These adapted cells become the embedded nematodes food source as it grows into a sausage shape, entering stages 3 and four and eventually laying its eggs before dying.
http://ippc2.orst.edu/mint/nemacycle.htm


Hairworm life cycle: The hairworm eggs hatch in water releasing stage to juvenile stage hairworms. Grasshoppers are their eventual host, though scientists are sure how the hairworm larvae get inside the grasshoppers. Eventually, through several moltings, the larvae that have gotten inside the grasshopper fill the grasshoppers whole body cavity releasing a toxic mixture of chemicals that causes the grasshopper to commit suicide by jumping into water. Once the grasshopper parasite host is dead, the adult hairworm emerges from the grasshopper, and repeats the lifecycle by laying a batch of eggs.


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The three classes of annelids are Polychaeta (marine annelids); Oligochaeta (marine, freshwater and trrestiral annelids such as earthworms); Hirudinea (marine, freshwater, and terrestrial leeches).


The Polychaeta move with bristles (Setae) that extend out from parapods, side flaps that extend from their bodies. The bristles look and act similar to legs, and help the polycaet swim or burrow.


The Oligocaeta and Hirudinea move by contracting muscles in their body in a sequential fashion, forcing their coelomic fluid to change the shape of each segment, thus moving their body forward. The setae bristles assist in anchoring them as they move forward.


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All of the following body structures contain bilateral symmetry. That is, they are symmetrical alone a defined plane. One example of bilateral symmetry is that if a person looked in a mirror and imagined a line extending from the middle of his/her head down to the floor, the body on the left side of the line would be a “mirror image” of the part of the body on the right side of the line.


Coelomates have a complex body cavity. Organs are suspended from the body wall. Mollusks and humans are just a few of the animals that share this body structure.
Pseudocoelomates have a simple fluid filled body. The organs of these simple animals often float within the body cavity. Nematodes are the most numerous members of animals that have this body structure.
Acoelomates lack internal body cavities. Acoelomates include flatworms and ribbon worms. For example, flatworms have organs, but do not have a fully formed digestive tract or a way to transport oxygen through the body. Therefore, each cell is required to handle respiration individually.


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1. Coelomates (segmented/annelida)


2. Pseudocoelomates (roundworm/nematoda)


3. Acoelomates (flat worm/platyhelminthes)


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The following advise on how to purify water for drinking. Please note that this is general advice; before drinking any water, you should check with local authorities as to its suitability. Be cautious of water containing particulate or solids, or polluted with unknown chemicals.


According to the Red Cross, to purify drinking water use any of the following methods:


1) Boil for five to ten minutes


2) Add ten (10) drops of household bleach solution per gallon of water, mix well and let stand for thirty (30) minutes. A slight smell or taste of chlorine indicates water is good to drink.


3) Add household tincture of iodine in the same manner as bleach above.


4) Use commercial purification tablets, following package directions. Two commercial brand names as Halazone and Globaline


<noinclude></translate></noinclude>
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{{ansreq|page={{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2|1}}|num=7}}
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Note: Such organizations as adra.org and worldwater.org provide information and resources for both parts of this question.


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{{ansreq|page={{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2|1}}|num=7a}} 
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To get you started: Fresh water that is free of organisms, including the parasitic worms we have studied, assists persons in living longer, avoiding disease, and living higher quality lives.


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{{ansreq|page={{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2|1}}|num=8}}
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John 4 contains the story of the woman at the well who received the instructions from Jesus about receiving living water. Consult the SDA Bible Commentary and your choice of Bible version (www.biblegateway.com) for the complete story. Also, Psalms 1:3 and Jeremiah 17:8


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==Resources:== 
*http://devbio.umesci.maine.edu/styler/globalworming/platyhelm.htm
*http://ippc2.orst.edu/mint/nemacycle.htm
*http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/09/0901_050901_wormparasite.html
*http://www.teachnet.ie/farmnet/Animal_classification.htm
*http://www.adra.org/site/Search?query=water
*http://www.path.cam.ac.uk/~schisto/Nematodes/Ascaris.html


[[Category:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Do at home|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]
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AY Honors/Worms - Advanced/Answer Key

2021-09-24T15:34:38Z

MBoismier:

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{{ansreq|page={{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2|1}}|num=1}}
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{{honor_prerequisite|honor=Worms}}


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The Monogenea, Trematoda, and Cestoda are the three major classes of parasitic flatworms, though the Turbellaria used to be considered a part of this class*


Monogeneans are largely ectoparasites on vertebrates like fishes; trematodes are the flukes, most of which live inside the organs of a variety of vertebrates as adults; and cestodes are the tapeworms, living in the intestines of a variety of vertebrates as adults (this is why your pets get annual shots—so that they don’t experience cestodes or trematodes—otherwise, pets could die as a result of an infestation of these worms.)


All Platyhelminthes are hermaphroditic in nature, meaning they can fertilize themselves.


*Turbellarians are, for the most part, free-living and non-parasitic, and thus do not in reality conform consistently with the rest of this class which is parasitic in nature.


For sake of completeness, it should be noted that the Monogenea are listed only on the most recent, scientific websites as part of the platyhelminthes classification. Most websites still refer to the pre-1999 classification of the platyhelminthes, making Turbellaria a class within that classification.


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Nematodes are also known as roundworms or eel worms. Examples include Lungworms, Hairworms, the Potato cyst, and stomach worms.


There are hundreds of types of nematodes.


There are three types of lifecycles present simply in the portion of this classification that infect plants:


Nematodes that are migratory ectoparasites are those that find plants as hosts (plant-parasitic). Migratory ectoparasites only feed on the surface cells of the plant (they don’t burrow into the plant). Pin, ring, and mint nematodes are examples of this type of nematode.


Their lifecycle: Eggs are laid only in the soil and develop until a first stage juvenile nematode is present. This nematode molts for the first time while still within the egg and it is the second stage juvenile which emerges from the egg into the soil. Moving through the soil, this nematode finds a root and inserts its stylet into one of the surface (epidermal) cells on the root surface. After feeding for some period of time, the nematode withdraws its stylet and moves on to feed in a new location. When the nematode has grown to a certain size, it molts a second time to become a third stage juvenile and later a third time to become a fourth stage juvenile. After a fourth and final molt, the nematode becomes an adult.


Migratory endoparasites are similar to the Migratory ectoparasites, except for the fact that they burrow into the plant to feed. Migratory endoparasites lay the eggs inside the host plants. The first stage juvenile molts inside the egg. The egg hatches once the juvenile has entered its second stage. Once released into the cortex (inside) of a plant, the juvenile will molt three more times, becoming either male or female. The eggs of the female will be laid in the cortex of the plant host At any stage, juveniles may move to (hence the term migratory) and infect new plants.


Sedentary endoparasites enter their host species setting up a permanent feeding station. Eventually a mature female will lay her eggs inside the host plants. The first stage juvenile molts inside the egg. he egg hatches once the juvenile has entered its second stage. This second stage is the ONLY stage that is infectious. It will leave the host plant and burrow into a plant, and release enzymes that change the chemical composition of the plant cells surrounding it. These adapted cells become the embedded nematodes food source as it grows into a sausage shape, entering stages 3 and four and eventually laying its eggs before dying.
http://ippc2.orst.edu/mint/nemacycle.htm


Hairworm life cycle: The hairworm eggs hatch in water releasing stage to juvenile stage hairworms. Grasshoppers are their eventual host, though scientists are sure how the hairworm larvae get inside the grasshoppers. Eventually, through several moltings, the larvae that have gotten inside the grasshopper fill the grasshoppers whole body cavity releasing a toxic mixture of chemicals that causes the grasshopper to commit suicide by jumping into water. Once the grasshopper parasite host is dead, the adult hairworm emerges from the grasshopper, and repeats the lifecycle by laying a batch of eggs.


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{{ansreq|page={{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2|1}}|num=4}}
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The three classes of annelids are Polychaeta (marine annelids); Oligochaeta (marine, freshwater and trrestiral annelids such as earthworms); Hirudinea (marine, freshwater, and terrestrial leeches).


The Polychaeta move with bristles (Setae) that extend out from parapods, side flaps that extend from their bodies. The bristles look and act similar to legs, and help the polycaet swim or burrow.


The Oligocaeta and Hirudinea move by contracting muscles in their body in a sequential fashion, forcing their coelomic fluid to change the shape of each segment, thus moving their body forward. The setae bristles assist in anchoring them as they move forward.


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{{ansreq|page={{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2|1}}|num=5a}}
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All of the following body structures contain bilateral symmetry. That is, they are symmetrical alone a defined plane. One example of bilateral symmetry is that if a person looked in a mirror and imagined a line extending from the middle of his/her head down to the floor, the body on the left side of the line would be a “mirror image” of the part of the body on the right side of the line.


Coelomates have a complex body cavity. Organs are suspended from the body wall. Mollusks and humans are just a few of the animals that share this body structure.
Pseudocoelomates have a simple fluid filled body. The organs of these simple animals often float within the body cavity. Nematodes are the most numerous members of animals that have this body structure.
Acoelomates lack internal body cavities. Acoelomates include flatworms and ribbon worms. For example, flatworms have organs, but do not have a fully formed digestive tract or a way to transport oxygen through the body. Therefore, each cell is required to handle respiration individually.


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1. Coelomates (segmented/annelida)


2. Pseudocoelomates (roundworm/nematoda)


3. Acoelomates (flat worm/platyhelminthes)


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{{ansreq|page={{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2|1}}|num=6}}
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The following advise on how to purify water for drinking. Please note that this is general advice; before drinking any water, you should check with local authorities as to its suitability. Be cautious of water containing particulate or solids, or polluted with unknown chemicals.


According to the Red Cross, to purify drinking water use any of the following methods:


1) Boil for five to ten minutes


2) Add ten (10) drops of household bleach solution per gallon of water, mix well and let stand for thirty (30) minutes. A slight smell or taste of chlorine indicates water is good to drink.


3) Add household tincture of iodine in the same manner as bleach above.


4) Use commercial purification tablets, following package directions. Two commercial brand names as Halazone and Globaline


<noinclude></translate></noinclude>
{{CloseReq}} 
{{ansreq|page={{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2|1}}|num=7}}
<noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>

Note: Such organizations as adra.org and worldwater.org provide information and resources for both parts of this question.


<noinclude></translate></noinclude>
{{ansreq|page={{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2|1}}|num=7a}} 
<noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>


To get you started: Fresh water that is free of organisms, including the parasitic worms we have studied, assists persons in living longer, avoiding disease, and living higher quality lives.


<noinclude></translate></noinclude>
{{CloseReq}} 
{{ansreq|page={{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2|1}}|num=7b}} 
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</noinclude>
For fundraising ideas, visit the NAD Pathfinder Forum at http://www.pathfindersonline.org/forum/viewforum.php?f=9.


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{{CloseReq}} 
{{CloseReq}} 
{{ansreq|page={{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2|1}}|num=8}}
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</noinclude>

John 4 contains the story of the woman at the well who received the instructions from Jesus about receiving living water. Consult the SDA Bible Commentary and your choice of Bible version (www.biblegateway.com) for the complete story. Also, Psalms 1:3 and Jeremiah 17:8


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{{CloseReq}} 
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==Resources:== 
*http://devbio.umesci.maine.edu/styler/globalworming/platyhelm.htm
*http://ippc2.orst.edu/mint/nemacycle.htm
*http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/09/0901_050901_wormparasite.html
*http://www.teachnet.ie/farmnet/Animal_classification.htm
*http://www.adra.org/site/Search?query=water
*http://www.path.cam.ac.uk/~schisto/Nematodes/Ascaris.html


[[Category:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Do at home|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]
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{{CloseHonorPage}}

AY Honors/Worms - Advanced/Answer Key

2021-09-24T15:33:40Z

MBoismier:

{{HonorSubpage}}
<section begin="Body" />

{{ansreq|page={{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2|1}}|num=1}}
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{{honor_prerequisite|honor=Worms}}


<noinclude></translate></noinclude>
{{CloseReq}} 
{{ansreq|page={{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2|1}}|num=2}}
<noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>

The Monogenea, Trematoda, and Cestoda are the three major classes of parasitic flatworms, though the Turbellaria used to be considered a part of this class*


Monogeneans are largely ectoparasites on vertebrates like fishes; trematodes are the flukes, most of which live inside the organs of a variety of vertebrates as adults; and cestodes are the tapeworms, living in the intestines of a variety of vertebrates as adults (this is why your pets get annual shots—so that they don’t experience cestodes or trematodes—otherwise, pets could die as a result of an infestation of these worms.)


All Platyhelminthes are hermaphroditic in nature, meaning they can fertilize themselves.


*Turbellarians are, for the most part, free-living and non-parasitic, and thus do not in reality conform consistently with the rest of this class which is parasitic in nature.


For sake of completeness, it should be noted that the Monogenea are listed only on the most recent, scientific websites as part of the platyhelminthes classification. Most websites still refer to the pre-1999 classification of the platyhelminthes, making Turbellaria a class within that classification.


<noinclude></translate></noinclude>
{{CloseReq}} 
{{ansreq|page={{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2|1}}|num=3}}
<noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>



Nematodes are also known as roundworms or eel worms. Examples include Lungworms, Hairworms, the Potato cyst, and stomach worms.


There are hundreds of types of nematodes.


There are three types of lifecycles present simply in the portion of this classification that infect plants:


Nematodes that are migratory ectoparasites are those that find plants as hosts (plant-parasitic). Migratory ectoparasites only feed on the surface cells of the plant (they don’t burrow into the plant). Pin, ring, and mint nematodes are examples of this type of nematode.


Their lifecycle: Eggs are laid only in the soil and develop until a first stage juvenile nematode is present. This nematode molts for the first time while still within the egg and it is the second stage juvenile which emerges from the egg into the soil. Moving through the soil, this nematode finds a root and inserts its stylet into one of the surface (epidermal) cells on the root surface. After feeding for some period of time, the nematode withdraws its stylet and moves on to feed in a new location. When the nematode has grown to a certain size, it molts a second time to become a third stage juvenile and later a third time to become a fourth stage juvenile. After a fourth and final molt, the nematode becomes an adult.


Migratory endoparasites are similar to the Migratory ectoparasites, except for the fact that they burrow into the plant to feed. Migratory endoparasites lay the eggs inside the host plants. The first stage juvenile molts inside the egg. The egg hatches once the juvenile has entered its second stage. Once released into the cortex (inside) of a plant, the juvenile will molt three more times, becoming either male or female. The eggs of the female will be laid in the cortex of the plant host At any stage, juveniles may move to (hence the term migratory) and infect new plants.


Sedentary endoparasites enter their host species setting up a permanent feeding station. Eventually a mature female will lay her eggs inside the host plants. The first stage juvenile molts inside the egg. he egg hatches once the juvenile has entered its second stage. This second stage is the ONLY stage that is infectious. It will leave the host plant and burrow into a plant, and release enzymes that change the chemical composition of the plant cells surrounding it. These adapted cells become the embedded nematodes food source as it grows into a sausage shape, entering stages 3 and four and eventually laying its eggs before dying.
http://ippc2.orst.edu/mint/nemacycle.htm


Hairworm life cycle: The hairworm eggs hatch in water releasing stage to juvenile stage hairworms. Grasshoppers are their eventual host, though scientists are sure how the hairworm larvae get inside the grasshoppers. Eventually, through several moltings, the larvae that have gotten inside the grasshopper fill the grasshoppers whole body cavity releasing a toxic mixture of chemicals that causes the grasshopper to commit suicide by jumping into water. Once the grasshopper parasite host is dead, the adult hairworm emerges from the grasshopper, and repeats the lifecycle by laying a batch of eggs.


<noinclude></translate></noinclude>
{{CloseReq}} 
{{ansreq|page={{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2|1}}|num=4}}
<noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>



The three classes of annelids are Polychaeta (marine annelids); Oligochaeta (marine, freshwater and trrestiral annelids such as earthworms); Hirudinea (marine, freshwater, and terrestrial leeches).


The Polychaeta move with bristles (Setae) that extend out from parapods, side flaps that extend from their bodies. The bristles look and act similar to legs, and help the polycaet swim or burrow.


The Oligocaeta and Hirudinea move by contracting muscles in their body in a sequential fashion, forcing their coelomic fluid to change the shape of each segment, thus moving their body forward. The setae bristles assist in anchoring them as they move forward.


<noinclude></translate></noinclude>
{{CloseReq}} 
{{ansreq|page={{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2|1}}|num=5}}
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</noinclude>

<noinclude></translate></noinclude>
{{ansreq|page={{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2|1}}|num=5a}}
<noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>


All of the following body structures contain bilateral symmetry. That is, they are symmetrical alone a defined plane. One example of bilateral symmetry is that if a person looked in a mirror and imagined a line extending from the middle of his/her head down to the floor, the body on the left side of the line would be a “mirror image” of the part of the body on the right side of the line.


Coelomates have a complex body cavity. Organs are suspended from the body wall. Mollusks and humans are just a few of the animals that share this body structure.
Pseudocoelomates have a simple fluid filled body. The organs of these simple animals often float within the body cavity. Nematodes are the most numerous members of animals that have this body structure.
Acoelomates lack internal body cavities. Acoelomates include flatworms and ribbon worms. For example, flatworms have organs, but do not have a fully formed digestive tract or a way to transport oxygen through the body. Therefore, each cell is required to handle respiration individually.
http://www.bookrags.com/Animal


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{{CloseReq}} 
{{ansreq|page={{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2|1}}|num=5b}} 
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</noinclude>


1. Coelomates (segmented/annelida)


2. Pseudocoelomates (roundworm/nematoda)


3. Acoelomates (flat worm/platyhelminthes)


<noinclude></translate></noinclude>
{{CloseReq}} 
{{CloseReq}} 
{{ansreq|page={{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2|1}}|num=6}}
<noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>



The following advise on how to purify water for drinking. Please note that this is general advice; before drinking any water, you should check with local authorities as to its suitability. Be cautious of water containing particulate or solids, or polluted with unknown chemicals.


According to the Red Cross, to purify drinking water use any of the following methods:


1) Boil for five to ten minutes


2) Add ten (10) drops of household bleach solution per gallon of water, mix well and let stand for thirty (30) minutes. A slight smell or taste of chlorine indicates water is good to drink.


3) Add household tincture of iodine in the same manner as bleach above.


4) Use commercial purification tablets, following package directions. Two commercial brand names as Halazone and Globaline


<noinclude></translate></noinclude>
{{CloseReq}} 
{{ansreq|page={{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2|1}}|num=7}}
<noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>

Note: Such organizations as adra.org and worldwater.org provide information and resources for both parts of this question.


<noinclude></translate></noinclude>
{{ansreq|page={{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2|1}}|num=7a}} 
<noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>


To get you started: Fresh water that is free of organisms, including the parasitic worms we have studied, assists persons in living longer, avoiding disease, and living higher quality lives.


<noinclude></translate></noinclude>
{{CloseReq}} 
{{ansreq|page={{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2|1}}|num=7b}} 
<noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>
For fundraising ideas, visit the NAD Pathfinder Forum at http://www.pathfindersonline.org/forum/viewforum.php?f=9.


<noinclude></translate></noinclude>
{{CloseReq}} 
{{CloseReq}} 
{{ansreq|page={{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2|1}}|num=8}}
<noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>

John 4 contains the story of the woman at the well who received the instructions from Jesus about receiving living water. Consult the SDA Bible Commentary and your choice of Bible version (www.biblegateway.com) for the complete story. Also, Psalms 1:3 and Jeremiah 17:8


<noinclude></translate></noinclude>
{{CloseReq}} 
<noinclude><translate></noinclude>
==Resources:== 
*http://devbio.umesci.maine.edu/styler/globalworming/platyhelm.htm
*http://ippc2.orst.edu/mint/nemacycle.htm
*http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/09/0901_050901_wormparasite.html
*http://www.teachnet.ie/farmnet/Animal_classification.htm
*http://www.adra.org/site/Search?query=water
*http://www.path.cam.ac.uk/~schisto/Nematodes/Ascaris.html


[[Category:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Do at home|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]
<noinclude></translate></noinclude>
{{CloseHonorPage}}

AY Honors/Worms - Advanced/Answer Key

2021-09-24T15:32:33Z

MBoismier:

{{HonorSubpage}}
<section begin="Body" />

{{ansreq|page={{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2|1}}|num=1}}
<noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>

{{honor_prerequisite|honor=Worms}}


<noinclude></translate></noinclude>
{{CloseReq}} 
{{ansreq|page={{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2|1}}|num=2}}
<noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>

The Monogenea, Trematoda, and Cestoda are the three major classes of parasitic flatworms, though the Turbellaria used to be considered a part of this class*


Monogeneans are largely ectoparasites on vertebrates like fishes; trematodes are the flukes, most of which live inside the organs of a variety of vertebrates as adults; and cestodes are the tapeworms, living in the intestines of a variety of vertebrates as adults (this is why your pets get annual shots—so that they don’t experience cestodes or trematodes—otherwise, pets could die as a result of an infestation of these worms.)


All Platyhelminthes are hermaphroditic in nature, meaning they can fertilize themselves.


*Turbellarians are, for the most part, free-living and non-parasitic, and thus do not in reality conform consistently with the rest of this class which is parasitic in nature.


For sake of completeness, it should be noted that the Monogenea are listed only on the most recent, scientific websites as part of the platyhelminthes classification. Most websites still refer to the pre-1999 classification of the platyhelminthes, making Turbellaria a class within that classification.


<noinclude></translate></noinclude>
{{CloseReq}} 
{{ansreq|page={{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2|1}}|num=3}}
<noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>



Nematodes are also known as roundworms or eel worms. Examples include Lungworms, Hairworms, the Potato cyst, and stomach worms.


There are hundreds of types of nematodes.


There are three types of lifecycles present simply in the portion of this classification that infect plants:


Nematodes that are migratory ectoparasites are those that find plants as hosts (plant-parasitic). Migratory ectoparasites only feed on the surface cells of the plant (they don’t burrow into the plant). Pin, ring, and mint nematodes are examples of this type of nematode.


Their lifecycle: Eggs are laid only in the soil and develop until a first stage juvenile nematode is present. This nematode molts for the first time while still within the egg and it is the second stage juvenile which emerges from the egg into the soil. Moving through the soil, this nematode finds a root and inserts its stylet into one of the surface (epidermal) cells on the root surface. After feeding for some period of time, the nematode withdraws its stylet and moves on to feed in a new location. When the nematode has grown to a certain size, it molts a second time to become a third stage juvenile and later a third time to become a fourth stage juvenile. After a fourth and final molt, the nematode becomes an adult.


Migratory endoparasites are similar to the Migratory ectoparasites, except for the fact that they burrow into the plant to feed. Migratory endoparasites lay the eggs inside the host plants. The first stage juvenile molts inside the egg. The egg hatches once the juvenile has entered its second stage. Once released into the cortex (inside) of a plant, the juvenile will molt three more times, becoming either male or female. The eggs of the female will be laid in the cortex of the plant host At any stage, juveniles may move to (hence the term migratory) and infect new plants.


Sedentary endoparasites enter their host species setting up a permanent feeding station. Eventually a mature female will lay her eggs inside the host plants. The first stage juvenile molts inside the egg. he egg hatches once the juvenile has entered its second stage. This second stage is the ONLY stage that is infectious. It will leave the host plant and burrow into a plant, and release enzymes that change the chemical composition of the plant cells surrounding it. These adapted cells become the embedded nematodes food source as it grows into a sausage shape, entering stages 3 and four and eventually laying its eggs before dying.
http://ippc2.orst.edu/mint/nemacycle.htm


Hairworm life cycle: The hairworm eggs hatch in water releasing stage to juvenile stage hairworms. Grasshoppers are their eventual host, though scientists are sure how the hairworm larvae get inside the grasshoppers. Eventually, through several moltings, the larvae that have gotten inside the grasshopper fill the grasshoppers whole body cavity releasing a toxic mixture of chemicals that causes the grasshopper to commit suicide by jumping into water. Once the grasshopper parasite host is dead, the adult hairworm emerges from the grasshopper, and repeats the lifecycle by laying a batch of eggs.
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/09/0901_050901_wormparasite.html


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The three classes of annelids are Polychaeta (marine annelids); Oligochaeta (marine, freshwater and trrestiral annelids such as earthworms); Hirudinea (marine, freshwater, and terrestrial leeches).


The Polychaeta move with bristles (Setae) that extend out from parapods, side flaps that extend from their bodies. The bristles look and act similar to legs, and help the polycaet swim or burrow.


The Oligocaeta and Hirudinea move by contracting muscles in their body in a sequential fashion, forcing their coelomic fluid to change the shape of each segment, thus moving their body forward. The setae bristles assist in anchoring them as they move forward.


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All of the following body structures contain bilateral symmetry. That is, they are symmetrical alone a defined plane. One example of bilateral symmetry is that if a person looked in a mirror and imagined a line extending from the middle of his/her head down to the floor, the body on the left side of the line would be a “mirror image” of the part of the body on the right side of the line.


Coelomates have a complex body cavity. Organs are suspended from the body wall. Mollusks and humans are just a few of the animals that share this body structure.
Pseudocoelomates have a simple fluid filled body. The organs of these simple animals often float within the body cavity. Nematodes are the most numerous members of animals that have this body structure.
Acoelomates lack internal body cavities. Acoelomates include flatworms and ribbon worms. For example, flatworms have organs, but do not have a fully formed digestive tract or a way to transport oxygen through the body. Therefore, each cell is required to handle respiration individually.
http://www.bookrags.com/Animal


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1. Coelomates (segmented/annelida)


2. Pseudocoelomates (roundworm/nematoda)


3. Acoelomates (flat worm/platyhelminthes)


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The following advise on how to purify water for drinking. Please note that this is general advice; before drinking any water, you should check with local authorities as to its suitability. Be cautious of water containing particulate or solids, or polluted with unknown chemicals.


According to the Red Cross, to purify drinking water use any of the following methods:


1) Boil for five to ten minutes


2) Add ten (10) drops of household bleach solution per gallon of water, mix well and let stand for thirty (30) minutes. A slight smell or taste of chlorine indicates water is good to drink.


3) Add household tincture of iodine in the same manner as bleach above.


4) Use commercial purification tablets, following package directions. Two commercial brand names as Halazone and Globaline


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Note: Such organizations as adra.org and worldwater.org provide information and resources for both parts of this question.


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To get you started: Fresh water that is free of organisms, including the parasitic worms we have studied, assists persons in living longer, avoiding disease, and living higher quality lives.


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For fundraising ideas, visit the NAD Pathfinder Forum at http://www.pathfindersonline.org/forum/viewforum.php?f=9.


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John 4 contains the story of the woman at the well who received the instructions from Jesus about receiving living water. Consult the SDA Bible Commentary and your choice of Bible version (www.biblegateway.com) for the complete story. Also, Psalms 1:3 and Jeremiah 17:8


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==Resources:== 
*http://devbio.umesci.maine.edu/styler/globalworming/platyhelm.htm
*http://ippc2.orst.edu/mint/nemacycle.htm
*http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/09/0901_050901_wormparasite.html
*http://www.teachnet.ie/farmnet/Animal_classification.htm
*http://www.adra.org/site/Search?query=water
*http://www.path.cam.ac.uk/~schisto/Nematodes/Ascaris.html


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AY Honors/Triathlon - Advanced/Answer Key

2021-09-17T20:34:31Z

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:{{honor_prerequisite|honor=Triathlon}}


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:''(If you already train regularly, all the notes here are moot, otherwise, here are some thoughts)''.


:It is often said: ''If you fail to plan, you plan to fail''.


:* You should take the time to sit down and create a training schedule. Since you are attempting this ''Advanced'' honor, you should already have some knowledge about what training you need.


:* Sit down with a calendar and determine on which days of the week you can put time aside for your training.


:* Decide what type of exercise you need to work on. For example, do you need to improve something specific in swimming, or, do you need to keep current with swimming? Do you need to improve your transition time? Do you need some road time on the bike? Do you need to run? Cross-training?


:* Commit yourself to this schedule, and follow it.


:* And do not forget to: Enjoy!


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:* After developing a training schedule from above, this requirement should be easy.


:* A ''log'' is a diary. You track your daily activities, how you are feeling, how the training went, and like a diary, you go back and review what you have done and how you can improve for the future.


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:''as a solo participant'' - this means that there is no relay teammates. You have to do all of the three sports yourself.
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:* Swimming is usually in meters, so, 1500-meters (1640.42 yards, or 0.93206 miles ''for the non-metric folks'')
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:* That's 24.8548 miles (''for the non-metric folks'').
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:* That's 6.21371 miles (''for the non-metric folks'').
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:* YOU can do it!


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==References== 
:* [http://www.usatriathlon.com/MultiSport101/Training.aspx USA Triathlon]
:* http://www.beginnertriathlete.com
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AY Honors/Track & Field/Answer Key

2021-09-17T20:27:24Z

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===50 yard dash=== 
====Rules====
;The Start:
Starting blocks are used for all competition sprint (up to and including 400 m) and relay events (first leg only, up to 4x400 m). The starting blocks consist of two adjustable footplates attached to a rigid frame. Races commence with the firing of the starter's gun. The starting commands are "On your marks" and "Set". Once all athletes are in the set position, the starter's gun is fired, officially starting the race. For the 100 m, all competitors are lined up side-by-side and race down a straight course. For the 200 m, 300 m and 400 m, which involve curves, runners are staggered for the start so they are all the same distance from the finish line.


In the rare event that there are technical issues with a start, a green card is shown to all the athletes. The green card carries no penalty. If an athlete is unhappy with track conditions after the "on your marks" command is given, he must raise his hand before the "set" command and provide the Start referee with a reason for raising their hand. It is then up to the Start referee to decide if the reason is valid. In the event that the Start referee deems the reason invalid, a yellow card (warning) is issued to that particular athlete. In the event that the athlete is already on a warning the athlete is disqualified.
;False starts:
"An athlete, after assuming a full and final set position, shall not commence his(/her) starting motion until after receiving the report of the gun, or approved starting apparatus. If, in the judgement of the Starter or Recallers, he does so any earlier, it shall be deemed a false start."


;Lanes:
For all Olympic sprint events, runners must remain within their pre-assigned lanes, which measure 1.22 metres (4 feet) wide, from start to finish. The lanes can be numbered 1 through normally 8 or 9 rarely 10, starting with the inside lane. Any athlete who runs outside the assigned lane to gain an advantage is subject to disqualification. If the athlete is forced to run outside of his or her lane by another person, and no material advantage is gained, there will be no disqualification. Also, a runner who strays from his or her lane in the straightaway, or crosses the outer line of his or her lane on the bend, and gains no advantage by it, will not be disqualified as long as no other runner is obstructed.


;The finish:
The first athlete whose torso reaches the vertical plane of the closest edge of the finish line is the winner. To ensure that the sprinter's torso triggers the timing impulse at the finish line rather than an arm, foot, or other body part, a double Photocell is commonly used. Times are only recorded by an electronic timing system when both of these Photocells are simultaneously blocked. Photo finish systems are also used at some track and field events.

====Safety Considerations==== 
Running is an easy sport to get into but you want to take steps to avoid injury. Injuries can include sprained ankles, blisters, stress fractures and tendonitis. On the track other runners are the main hazard. Off the track, you must stay alert for trip hazards, vehicles and even animals.


Avoiding Running Injuries
Up to half of all runners are injured every year, so try to avoid getting hurt.


Running, especially on asphalt or other hard surfaces, puts a significant stress on the legs and back leading to various problems. The most common running injuries are sprained ankles, blisters, tendonitis, chondromalacia (runner's knee), iliotibial band (ITB) syndrome, heel pain, and shinsplints. Teen runners are also at risk of growth plate injuries.


Before running: Choose the right gear, warm up your muscles before you start, and be prepared for the weather. Dress warmly when its cold and drink enough when it is hot.


While running: be alert to your surroundings including other runners and for hazards. If listening to music, be extra alert because you may not hear cars.


Stop running as soon as you notice signs of trouble. If you have pain, seek medical attention. Ignoring the warning signs of an injury leads to bigger problems later.

====Warm-up==== 
Warming up prepares the sprinter's muscles by increasing the force of their muscle contractions and speeding up muscle contraction rate, giving the sprinter more power and speed. Warming up also helps nervous young athletes stabilize their adrenalin rush before competition, helping them better control their pre-event nervousness. Here's how sprinters should go about warming up for races and training sessions.


Phase One: Start your sprinter's warm up with 10-15 minutes jogging to increase body temperature--slow and easy.


Phase Two: This should follow on immediately after phase two and consists of 10-15 minutes of dynamic stretching exercises to reduce muscle stiffness. Dynamic (ballistic) stretches through a wide range of motion work best because they are closer to the athlete's actual movements in competition; and research shows that static stretching exercises do not simulate rapid running movement and may actually cause a reduction in leg power.


Phase Three: The sprinter progresses to 10-15 minutes of general and event-specific drills. These specific drills put the finishing touches on the warm up and prepare the athlete for sprint training. The drills usually include leg speed exercises, and it is here that pre-race and pre-training warm ups diverge.


The pre-race warm up needs a few (3-6) easy acceleration "stride throughs" over 50 meters (but no longer than this). Follow these accelerations with a few practice starts. This phase should finish 5 minutes before the race start, and all the runner needs to do until then is walk/jog to keep warm. The pre-competition warm-up needs to be controlled so that it does not deplete the sprinter's high-energy phosphates ATP and PC.

===600 yard run=== 
====Rules====
The rules for the 600 yard run are the same as for the 50 yard dash.
====Safety Considerations====
Also same as for a 50 yard dash
====Warm-up====
You should warm up as for the 50 yard dash.

===Hurdles=== 
====Rules====
Hurdling is the act of running and stepping over an obstacle at speed. Various events use hurdles, a series of barriers set at precisely measured heights and distances which each athlete must pass by running over. Failure to pass over, by passing under, or intentionally knocking over hurdles will result in disqualification. Accidental knocking over of hurdles is not cause for disqualification, but the hurdles are weighted to make doing so disadvantageous.


Start and finish rules are the same as in sprints and other running events.


The most prominent hurdles events are 110 meters hurdles for men, 100 meters hurdles for women, and 400 meters hurdles (both sexes) – these three distances are all contested at the Summer Olympics and the World Championships in Athletics. The two shorter distances take place on the straight of a running track, while the 400 m version covers one whole lap of a standard oval track. Events over shorter distances are also commonly held at indoor track and field events, ranging from 50 meters hurdles upwards. Women historically competed in the 80 meters hurdles at the Olympics in the mid-20th century. Hurdles race are also part of combined events contests, including the decathlon and heptathlon.

====Safety Considerations==== 
Same as the other running events.

====Warm-up==== 
This running event should be warmed up for like other short distance running events as described under 50 yard dash.

===Running broad jump=== 
====Rules====
You are to start at the board and sprint 12 strides. At the end of your 12 strides, sprint to the board and jump with your right knee up. Land in the sand with your feet parallel. This event is now usually called the long jump.

====Safety Considerations==== 
You really cannot hurt yourself during this event, but you should not be running if you have any sort of knee, ankle, or hip problems because the impact when you land in the sand can be excessive to some people.

====Warm-up==== 
Warm ups for the long jump would be drills such as doing short sprints and stretching. Jumpers practice the run up 5 to 10 times for every time the practice a jump because hitting the block just right without going over is so important to avoid disqualifying.

===High jump=== 
====Rules====
The rules for the high jump are set by the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF).


1. Jumpers must take off on one foot.
2. Competitors may begin jumping at any height announced by the chief judge, or may pass, at their own discretion. Three consecutive missed jumps, at any height or combination of heights, will eliminate the jumper from competition.
3. A jump is considered a failure if the bar is dislodged by the action of the jumper whilst jumping or the jumper touches the ground or breaks the plane of the near edge of the bar before clearance.
4. The jumper who clears the greatest height during the final wins. If two or more jumpers tie for first place, the tie-breakers are: 1) The fewest misses at the height at which the tie occurred; and 2) The fewest misses throughout the competition.

====Safety Considerations==== 
Assuming you are working with a deep foam crashpad, the way to get hurt is to land on your head. Those who use the Folsbury Flop land on their shoulders and upper back.

====Warm-up==== 
Warm-up is basically the same for all Track and Field events at the high school level.

===Relay race=== 
====Rules====
The 4 × 100 metres relay or sprint relay is an athletics track event run in lanes over one lap of the track with four runners completing 100 metres each. The first runners must begin in the same stagger as for the individual 400 m race. A relay baton is carried by each runner and must be passed within a 20 m changeover box (usually marked by yellow lines) which extends 10 m on either side of each 100 m mark of the race. Another line is marked 10 m further back, marking the earliest point at which the outgoing runner may begin (giving up to 10 m of acceleration before entering the passing zone).


Transferring of the baton in this race is typically blind. The outgoing runner reaches a straight arm backwards when they enter the changeover box, or when the incoming runner makes a verbal signal. The outgoing runner does not look backwards, and it is the responsibility of the incoming runner to thrust the baton into the outstretched hand, and not let go until the outgoing runner takes hold of it. Runners on the first and third legs typically run on the inside of the lane with the baton in their right hand, while runners on the second and fourth legs take the baton in their left. Polished handovers can compensate for a lack of basic speed to some extent, and disqualification for dropping the baton or failing to transfer it within the box is common, even at the highest level.

====Safety Considerations==== 
Same as for all running events, see the 50 yard dash section.

====Warm-up==== 
Warm-up the same as described for the 50 yard dash.


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When sprinting, the forefoot should always touch the ground first, and it should do this when the body's center of mass is directly above the foot. The heel should not touch the ground at all. A good way to develop this technique is to run barefoot, as barefoot running makes it painful to land on the heel.


The body should be held erect except during the start, and the chin should be held up. The elbow should be flexed at 90° as the arms swing at the sides, close to the body at all times. The fist should come up the height of the shoulder and then swing down to the hips in a hammering action.<ref>http://www.sport-fitness-advisor.com/sprintingtechnique.html</ref>


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{{Bible verse
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|chapter=18
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<sup>24</sup>While David was sitting between the inner and outer gates, the watchman went up to the roof of the gateway by the wall. As he looked out, he saw a man running alone. <sup>25</sup> The watchman called out to the king and reported it.
:The king said, "If he is alone, he must have good news." And the man came closer and closer.


<sup>26</sup> Then the watchman saw another man running, and he called down to the gatekeeper, "Look, another man running alone!"
:The king said, "He must be bringing good news, too."


<sup>27</sup>The watchman said, "It seems to me that the first one runs like Ahimaaz son of Zadok."
:"He's a good man," the king said. "He comes with good news."
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{{Bible verse
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|chapter=9
|verse = 24-27
|version=NIV
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<sup>24</sup>Do you not know that in a race all the runners run, but only one gets the prize? Run in such a way as to get the prize.


<sup>25</sup>Everyone who competes in the games goes into strict training. They do it to get a crown that will not last; but we do it to get a crown that will last forever. <sup>26</sup>Therefore I do not run like a man running aimlessly; I do not fight like a man beating the air. <sup>27</sup>No, I beat my body and make it my slave so that after I have preached to others, I myself will not be disqualified for the prize.
}}


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;Clothing:
;Shoes: Light weight, with holes to accept spikes.


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Running tracks are typically ovals with a perimeter of 400 meters.
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A marathon race is {{units|42.195km|26 miles, 385 yards}} long.


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The ball of the foot should touch first.
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Your arms should not come across your body. They should be at your side with your hands cupped in a parallel form. Your head should face your direction of travel, straight ahead.


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Inhale and exhale in a slow, rhythmic, controlled fashion.


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Cross country running often involves hills, while tracks do not. Cross country runners often must contend with traffic, but they are rewarded with changing scenery.


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See guidance under Requirement #1 for hurdles.


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In this event the jumpers take turns making a running jump over an increasingly higher bar onto a crash pad. Touching the bar is considered a fault and three consecutive faults ends the jumper's quest. The highest successful jump wins.


The Fosbury Flop was popularized and perfected by American athlete Dick Fosbury first in 1965. His gold medal in the 1968 Summer Olympics brought it to the world's attention. Over the next few years the flop became the dominant style of the event with all elite jumpers using some variation on it. Before Fosbury, most elite jumpers used the straddle technique, Western Roll, Eastern cut-off or even scissors jump to clear the bar. The introduction of deep foam crash pads instead of sandpits or low piles of matting freed high jumpers from the need to land on their feet to prevent injury, and allowed experimentation with the Folsbury Flop coming out the superior technique.


The high jump and pole vault are the two vertical clearance events in the Olympics.


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This track and field event is now known as the long jump. Successful athletes combine speed, strength, and agility as they try to leap as far as possible from a take off point without crossing over the fault line. The jumper runs down a track (usually crushed rubber) and jumps off a block embedded in the ground into a sand pit. The jump is measured from the block to the nearest point of impact of any part of the body. In competition the best of three jumps is recorded.


The event has a history in the Ancient Olympic Games as the only jumping event and has been a modern Olympic event for men since the first Olympics in 1896 and for women since 1948.


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==References== 
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AY Honors/Swimming - Beginner/Answer Key 2

2021-09-17T20:17:25Z

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'''''Headfirst entry should NOT be taught unless the water depth is at least 9 feet.'''''
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'''''Headfirst entry should NOT be taught unless the water depth is at least 9 feet.'''''


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==References== 
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AY Honors/Swimming - Beginner/Answer Key 2

2021-09-17T20:16:16Z

MBoismier:

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==References== 
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AY Honors/Slow-Pitch Softball/Answer Key

2021-09-17T20:03:15Z

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Softball is a variant of baseball played with a larger ball on a smaller field. It was invented in 1887 in Chicago as an indoor game. It was at various times called indoor baseball, mush ball, playground, softbund ball, kitten ball, and, because it was also played by women, ladies' baseball. The name softball was given to the game in 1926.
There are two types of softball. In the most common type, slow-pitch softball, the ball, sometimes larger than the standard 12 inches, must arch on its path to the batter; there are 10 players in a team; and bunting and stealing are prohibited. In fast-pitch softball, the pitch is fast, there are 9 players on the field at one time, and bunting and stealing are permitted. Softball rules vary somewhat from those of baseball. Two major differences are that the ball must be pitched underhand—from 46 ft. for men or 43 ft. for women as compared with 60.5 ft. in baseball—and that seven innings instead of nine constitute a regulation game.
Despite the name, the ball used in softball is not very soft. It is about 11 or 12 in. in circumference for slow-pitch, which is 3 in. larger than a baseball. The infield in softball is smaller than on a baseball diamond; each base is 60 ft. from the next, as opposed to baseball's 90 ft.


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{{:AY Honors/Good Sportsmanship}}


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===Infield=== 
:;pitcher:
:;catcher
:;first baseman:
:;second baseman:
:;shortstop:
:;third baseman:
===Outfield===
:;left fielder:
:;center fielder:
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:;rover: In slow pitch softball there is an extra fielder, who is specified as a rover. Normally, the defensive team will play with four outfielders, meaning there is a left fielder, left-center fielder, right-center fielder, and right fielder.


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[[File:Baseball bat 1.jpg|thumb|300px|A collection of bats]]
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The bat used by the batter can be made of metal, wood, or composite materials (carbon fiber, etc.). Sizes may vary but they may be no more than 86 cm in length, 6 cm in diameter, or 38 oz. in weight. The Slowpitch softball bat barrel standard is 2 1/4 inches. Many players prefer a smaller barrel that lightens weight and provides more swing speed.
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[[File:Softball diamond large.png|thumb|300px|Softball diamond]]
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The "on deck circle" is a circle outside the field of play where the next batter stands while waiting for a turn to bat. The next player to bat is said to be "on deck."
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The batter's box is a rectangle in which the batter stands while at bat. There are two batter's boxes on a softball diamond, one on either side of home plate. This allows a hitter to stand on either side of home pate, a choice often made depending on the batter's handedness.
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The outfield is the area of the softball diamond beyond the baselines (which are the lanes between the bases).
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The coaches' box is a rectangular area outside the field of play. A softball diamond has two of them, with one situated near first base, and another near third base. The base coaches stand in these to offer instruction and advice to the runners.
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The pitcher's mound is a raised area in the center of the infield. The pitcher stands on the mound when pitching.
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Diamond bag is another word for ''base.'' There are three of them, designated first, second, and third base.
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The pitching rubber is a strip of rubber located on the pitcher's mound. The pitcher's foot must be in contact with the pitching rubber when the pitch is made.
[[File:Baseball glove.png|thumb|250px|Glove]]
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All defensive players wear fielding gloves, made of leather or similar material. Gloves have webbing between the thumb and forefinger, known as the "pocket". The first baseman and the catcher may wear mitts; mitts are distinguished from gloves in that they have extra padding, and no fingers. Gloves used in softball are generally larger than the ones used in baseball.
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This is when there are fewer than 3 outs and there are base runners on first, second, and third. In this situation, all runners are prepared to run when the ball is hit. If there are two outs, all runners will "run on contact," when the ball is hit by the hitter.
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The home team is the team who is playing on their own field, and the other team is visiting from another school or town. Alternately, the home team is randomly chosen in some fashion. That is because, in many leagues, all teams are from one region and players have been randomly assigned by the league. In this second case, the home team is simply the team that bats in the bottom of the inning. In this case, home team is usually chosen by a coin toss at the beginning of the game or has been decided by the league scheduling office prior to the beginning of the season. On a scoreboard, the home team always appears second and bats in the bottom of each inning.
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A bunt is not legal in most slow-pitch softball leagues. If allowed, it is performed by the batter moving his/her upper hand up the stock of the bat, bringing the bat parallel to the ground as it makes contact with the ball. The goal is for the ball to drop mere inches in front of the plate, thus forcing the fielders to make the "sure out" at first and advance the other base runners. It is a tactical move that is better suited to the expertise of players in fast-pitch leagues. Also, since most slow-pitch softball games require a 6' arc pitch, a bunt is nearly impossible.
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An inning is composed of a top and a bottom of the inning. During the top of the inning the visiting team bats until they make three outs. In the bottom of the inning the home team bats until them make three outs. Most slow-pitch softball games have seven-innings. However, there are other rules (that are common to most leagues--check your local league's rules) that may limit the number of innings played such as:
1. No inning may begin after the one-hour of play has ended
2. If one team is leading by 15+ runs after 3 innings or 10+ runs after 5 innings, the game is called (ended). This is often called the "mercy rule."
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This term is used to calculate earned runs and the like. It means that the defense had a choice of whether to get the batter out at first, or to get another base-runner out on second, third or home, and chose to get the base-runner out rather than the batter. This term is not used much in slow-pitch softball.
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This is a list of the players on a team and the ORDER in which they bat. In many slow-pitch softball leagues, all players on a team hit, regardless of whether they are part of the 10-man-field. In many leagues, a team is allowed to play the game with only 8 of their 10-person field players present. However, when there are less than 10 batters, an out is taken whenever those spots come up in the rotation. In most cases, if a player arrives late they can ONLY be inserted in the lineup at the bottom of the lineup. Thus, if your "#3 hitter" shows up after the game has started, he/she can't hit where you strategically like him/her to. Instead he/she bats at the bottom of the lineup.
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This occurs when the batter swings at a pitch and makes contact with the ball. However, the ball does not "land" between the lines (the field area), but instead flies far left, far right, or behind the batter, and thus not in the field of play. After the player has received a second strike, he/she is allowed a "courtesy foul" but if he/she fouls a second time (after the second strike), he/she is called out. If a foul tip is caught by a fielder (usually the catcher or infielder), he/she is called out.
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The score is usually displayed on a scoreboard, but at least is recorded by each team and returned to the officials. The score is the summation of the number of runs scored by each team throughout the game. At the end of the game, the team with the highest score (the most runs scored) wins the game.
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A home run (HR) with runners on all three bases prior to the home run. Thus, the home run results in four RBIs for the hitter and 4 runs scored for the team.
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The area between the shoulders and knees of the batter that is the width of the home plate (thus a rectangular area). A pitch delivered through this zone is considered a strike.


In most leagues, a player enters the batters box with one strike and one ball (to speed up the game), and thus, two more strikes either swung at or called strikes result in an out.
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# Call balls and strikes -- The homebase umpire is responsible to indicate to the players how many balls and strikes the current batter has accumulated.
# Call foul/fair balls "down the lines" -- The umpire is responsible to indicate with proper signaling whether a ball hit to the right or left is a "fair" ball (and thus playable) or "foul" ball (and thus cannot be run/scored upon).
# Call base-runners safe/out -- Once the ball is in play, the umpire is responsible for determining whether the runners successfully tagged and maintained contact with the bases around the basepath ahead of the fielders play or whether the fielder was able to put the runner "out" by force or by tagging the non-forced runner.
# Call double plays and other fielding outs -- Once the ball is in play, the umpire is responsible for determining whether a hit ball was caught by the fielder and whether he/she maintained control of that ball throughout the play. When calling double plays the umpire is responsible for seeing that the ball arrived at the first put out location (usually second) prior to the baserunner, then was relayed to the second put out location (usually first) and arrived prior to the baserunner.
# Call the start and end of the game -- Umpires must make sure games begin and end on time
# Recording / tracking scorecards & Lineups -- Umpires guard the integrity of the game by being sure that the scores recorded are valid and that the lineups were legitimate throughout the game's play.


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# Eye-hand coordination
# Concentration
# Strategic play (both offensively and defensively)
# Teamwork (the ability to communicate with and work with other players for the common goal of winning the game and playing well)
# Placement and control (pitcher & catcher especially)


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Batter up! Have fun.


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We would encourage you to limiting your report to one page about a famous baseball/softball athlete.
Olympic baseball, Olympic women's softball, Major League Baseball, the Negro Leagues (historical),
[[w:List_of_professional_sports_leagues#Baseball|Wikipedia List of Professional Baseball Leagues]]may give you some ideas.


Remember that not all super stars are admirable Christian role models. Many have abused alcohol, performance enhancing drugs, etc. In addition, many have used sports as an excuse to live lives not in keeping with the 10 Commandments, especially commandments #7 and #10 ("Thou shalt not commit adultery" and "Thou shalt not covet.") However, as in most walks of life, there are heroes that not only stand out professionally as the best in their field, but who also live model lives that Christian young people can admire.


REMEMBER, this is ONLY a ONE PAGE report.


Please practice honesty by NOT simply cut-and-pasting a Wikipedia biography into a word document. Your paper should show thought and highlight the question asked in this requirement.


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{{:AY Honors/Problems faced by SDA sports participants}}


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==References== 
Mark O'Ffill is the author of the answers for the "Slow Pitch Softball Requirements" and also was responsible for taking several editions of differing proposed honor requirements and submitting one united honor proposal to the Honors Taskforce. At the time this article was written, Mark was a teacher at Hilltop Christian School in Antioch, CA, where he taught PE to grades 3-10, in addition to History and Bible classes for grades 7-10.
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AY Honors/Slow-Pitch Softball/Answer Key

2021-09-17T20:02:28Z

MBoismier:

{{HonorSubpage}}

<section begin="Body" />
{{ansreq|page={{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2|1}}|num=1}}
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Softball is a variant of baseball played with a larger ball on a smaller field. It was invented in 1887 in Chicago as an indoor game. It was at various times called indoor baseball, mush ball, playground, softbund ball, kitten ball, and, because it was also played by women, ladies' baseball. The name softball was given to the game in 1926.
There are two types of softball. In the most common type, slow-pitch softball, the ball, sometimes larger than the standard 12 inches, must arch on its path to the batter; there are 10 players in a team; and bunting and stealing are prohibited. In fast-pitch softball, the pitch is fast, there are 9 players on the field at one time, and bunting and stealing are permitted. Softball rules vary somewhat from those of baseball. Two major differences are that the ball must be pitched underhand—from 46 ft. for men or 43 ft. for women as compared with 60.5 ft. in baseball—and that seven innings instead of nine constitute a regulation game.
Despite the name, the ball used in softball is not very soft. It is about 11 or 12 in. in circumference for slow-pitch, which is 3 in. larger than a baseball. The infield in softball is smaller than on a baseball diamond; each base is 60 ft. from the next, as opposed to baseball's 90 ft.


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{{:AY Honors/Good Sportsmanship}}


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===Infield=== 
:;pitcher:
:;catcher
:;first baseman:
:;second baseman:
:;shortstop:
:;third baseman:
===Outfield===
:;left fielder:
:;center fielder:
:;right fielder:
:;rover: In slow pitch softball there is an extra fielder, who is specified as a rover. Normally, the defensive team will play with four outfielders, meaning there is a left fielder, left-center fielder, right-center fielder, and right fielder.


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[[File:Baseball bat 1.jpg|thumb|300px|A collection of bats]]
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The bat used by the batter can be made of metal, wood, or composite materials (carbon fiber, etc.). Sizes may vary but they may be no more than 86 cm in length, 6 cm in diameter, or 38 oz. in weight. The Slowpitch softball bat barrel standard is 2 1/4 inches. Many players prefer a smaller barrel that lightens weight and provides more swing speed.
{{clear}}
[[File:Softball diamond large.png|thumb|300px|Softball diamond]]
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The "on deck circle" is a circle outside the field of play where the next batter stands while waiting for a turn to bat. The next player to bat is said to be "on deck."
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The batter's box is a rectangle in which the batter stands while at bat. There are two batter's boxes on a softball diamond, one on either side of home plate. This allows a hitter to stand on either side of home pate, a choice often made depending on the batter's handedness.
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The outfield is the area of the softball diamond beyond the baselines (which are the lanes between the bases).
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The coaches' box is a rectangular area outside the field of play. A softball diamond has two of them, with one situated near first base, and another near third base. The base coaches stand in these to offer instruction and advice to the runners.
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The pitcher's mound is a raised area in the center of the infield. The pitcher stands on the mound when pitching.
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Diamond bag is another word for ''base.'' There are three of them, designated first, second, and third base.
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The pitching rubber is a strip of rubber located on the pitcher's mound. The pitcher's foot must be in contact with the pitching rubber when the pitch is made.
[[File:Baseball glove.png|thumb|250px|Glove]]
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All defensive players wear fielding gloves, made of leather or similar material. Gloves have webbing between the thumb and forefinger, known as the "pocket". The first baseman and the catcher may wear mitts; mitts are distinguished from gloves in that they have extra padding, and no fingers. Gloves used in softball are generally larger than the ones used in baseball.
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{{clear}}


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This is when there are fewer than 3 outs and there are base runners on first, second, and third. In this situation, all runners are prepared to run when the ball is hit. If there are two outs, all runners will "run on contact," when the ball is hit by the hitter.
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The home team is the team who is playing on their own field, and the other team is visiting from another school or town. Alternately, the home team is randomly chosen in some fashion. That is because, in many leagues, all teams are from one region and players have been randomly assigned by the league. In this second case, the home team is simply the team that bats in the bottom of the inning. In this case, home team is usually chosen by a coin toss at the beginning of the game or has been decided by the league scheduling office prior to the beginning of the season. On a scoreboard, the home team always appears second and bats in the bottom of each inning.
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A bunt is not legal in most slow-pitch softball leagues. If allowed, it is performed by the batter moving his/her upper hand up the stock of the bat, bringing the bat parallel to the ground as it makes contact with the ball. The goal is for the ball to drop mere inches in front of the plate, thus forcing the fielders to make the "sure out" at first and advance the other base runners. It is a tactical move that is better suited to the expertise of players in fast-pitch leagues. Also, since most slow-pitch softball games require a 6' arc pitch, a bunt is nearly impossible.
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An inning is composed of a top and a bottom of the inning. During the top of the inning the visiting team bats until they make three outs. In the bottom of the inning the home team bats until them make three outs. Most slow-pitch softball games have seven-innings. However, there are other rules (that are common to most leagues--check your local league's rules) that may limit the number of innings played such as:
1. No inning may begin after the one-hour of play has ended
2. If one team is leading by 15+ runs after 3 innings or 10+ runs after 5 innings, the game is called (ended). This is often called the "mercy rule."
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This term is used to calculate earned runs and the like. It means that the defense had a choice of whether to get the batter out at first, or to get another base-runner out on second, third or home, and chose to get the base-runner out rather than the batter. This term is not used much in slow-pitch softball.
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This is a list of the players on a team and the ORDER in which they bat. In many slow-pitch softball leagues, all players on a team hit, regardless of whether they are part of the 10-man-field. In many leagues, a team is allowed to play the game with only 8 of their 10-person field players present. However, when there are less than 10 batters, an out is taken whenever those spots come up in the rotation. In most cases, if a player arrives late they can ONLY be inserted in the lineup at the bottom of the lineup. Thus, if your "#3 hitter" shows up after the game has started, he/she can't hit where you strategically like him/her to. Instead he/she bats at the bottom of the lineup.
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This occurs when the batter swings at a pitch and makes contact with the ball. However, the ball does not "land" between the lines (the field area), but instead flies far left, far right, or behind the batter, and thus not in the field of play. After the player has received a second strike, he/she is allowed a "courtesy foul" but if he/she fouls a second time (after the second strike), he/she is called out. If a foul tip is caught by a fielder (usually the catcher or infielder), he/she is called out.
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The score is usually displayed on a scoreboard, but at least is recorded by each team and returned to the officials. The score is the summation of the number of runs scored by each team throughout the game. At the end of the game, the team with the highest score (the most runs scored) wins the game.
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A home run (HR) with runners on all three bases prior to the home run. Thus, the home run results in four RBIs for the hitter and 4 runs scored for the team.
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The area between the shoulders and knees of the batter that is the width of the home plate (thus a rectangular area). A pitch delivered through this zone is considered a strike.


In most leagues, a player enters the batters box with one strike and one ball (to speed up the game), and thus, two more strikes either swung at or called strikes result in an out.
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# Call balls and strikes -- The homebase umpire is responsible to indicate to the players how many balls and strikes the current batter has accumulated.
# Call foul/fair balls "down the lines" -- The umpire is responsible to indicate with proper signaling whether a ball hit to the right or left is a "fair" ball (and thus playable) or "foul" ball (and thus cannot be run/scored upon).
# Call base-runners safe/out -- Once the ball is in play, the umpire is responsible for determining whether the runners successfully tagged and maintained contact with the bases around the basepath ahead of the fielders play or whether the fielder was able to put the runner "out" by force or by tagging the non-forced runner.
# Call double plays and other fielding outs -- Once the ball is in play, the umpire is responsible for determining whether a hit ball was caught by the fielder and whether he/she maintained control of that ball throughout the play. When calling double plays the umpire is responsible for seeing that the ball arrived at the first put out location (usually second) prior to the baserunner, then was relayed to the second put out location (usually first) and arrived prior to the baserunner.
# Call the start and end of the game -- Umpires must make sure games begin and end on time
# Recording / tracking scorecards & Lineups -- Umpires guard the integrity of the game by being sure that the scores recorded are valid and that the lineups were legitimate throughout the game's play.


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# Eye-hand coordination
# Concentration
# Strategic play (both offensively and defensively)
# Teamwork (the ability to communicate with and work with other players for the common goal of winning the game and playing well)
# Placement and control (pitcher & catcher especially)


<noinclude></translate></noinclude>
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Batter up! Have fun.


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We would encourage you to limiting your report to one page about a famous baseball/softball athlete.
Olympic baseball, Olympic women's softball, Major League Baseball, the Negro Leagues (historical),
[[w:List_of_professional_sports_leagues#Baseball|Wikipedia List of Professional Baseball Leagues]may give you some ideas.


Remember that not all super stars are admirable Christian role models. Many have abused alcohol, performance enhancing drugs, etc. In addition, many have used sports as an excuse to live lives not in keeping with the 10 Commandments, especially commandments #7 and #10 ("Thou shalt not commit adultery" and "Thou shalt not covet.") However, as in most walks of life, there are heroes that not only stand out professionally as the best in their field, but who also live model lives that Christian young people can admire.


REMEMBER, this is ONLY a ONE PAGE report.


Please practice honesty by NOT simply cut-and-pasting a Wikipedia biography into a word document. Your paper should show thought and highlight the question asked in this requirement.


<noinclude></translate></noinclude>
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{{:AY Honors/Problems faced by SDA sports participants}}


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==References== 
Mark O'Ffill is the author of the answers for the "Slow Pitch Softball Requirements" and also was responsible for taking several editions of differing proposed honor requirements and submitting one united honor proposal to the Honors Taskforce. At the time this article was written, Mark was a teacher at Hilltop Christian School in Antioch, CA, where he taught PE to grades 3-10, in addition to History and Bible classes for grades 7-10.
<noinclude></translate></noinclude>
{{CloseHonorPage}}

AY Honors/Outdoor Leadership - Advanced/Requirements

2021-09-17T18:46:27Z

MBoismier:

{{HonorSubpage}}

<section begin=Body />

<b>1. <section begin=req1 /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Have the Outdoor Leadership honor.
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req1 /></b>

<b>2. <section begin=req2 /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Earn three honors, not previously earned, from the Wilderness Master Award.
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req2 /></b>

<b>3. <section begin=req3 /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Have a First Aid and CPR Honors and a current certificate for them. In addition to these honors, know the prevention and symptoms of, and first aid treatment for the following:
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req3 /></b>

:<b>a. <section begin=req3a /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Hypothermia
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req3a /></b>

:<b>b. <section begin=req3b /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Venomous snake bite
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:<b>c. <section begin=req3c /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Heat and sun stroke
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:<b>d. <section begin=req3d /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Heat exhaustion
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req3d /></b>

:<b>e. <section begin=req3e /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Poison ivy & poison oak reaction
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req3e /></b>

:<b>f. <section begin=req3f /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Open wound infection
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req3f /></b>

:<b>g. <section begin=req3g /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Altitude sickness
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:<b>h. <section begin=req3h /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Dehydration
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<b>4. <section begin=req4 /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Prepare outlines and present seven different worships to be shared during a camping experience. Utilize scriptural texts and principles, and illustrate these with examples available during the camping experience.
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req4 /></b>

<b>5. <section begin=req5 /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Outline a personal testimony that could be used to start a friendship between a person and Christ. The testimony could include how Jesus became your personal Savior, a miracle that has happened in your life, etc. Present this testimony to a group of youth in an outdoor setting.
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req5 /></b>

<b>6. <section begin=req6 /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Know how to control the panic of someone who is lost.
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req6 /></b>

<section begin=challenge />
<b>7. <section begin=req7 /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Develop a search and rescue plan for a specific location, 50 acres (20 hectares) or more, in your area. This plan should utilize at least ten individuals, and you should coordinate each one's activity and search zone. List specific equipment that might be needed for communication, first aid, and victim transport appropriate for the chosen location.
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req7 /></b>
<section end=challenge />

<b>8. <section begin=req8 /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Outline your philosophy for wilderness etiquette. Participate in one to three hours of a wilderness conservation project.
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req8 /></b>

<b>9. <section begin=req9 /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Teach at least one honor found in the Wilderness Master group.
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req9 /></b>

<b>10. <section begin=req10 /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Know at least four objectives for outdoor leadership in each of the following categories:
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req10 /></b>

:<b>a. <section begin=req10a /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Physical
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req10a /></b>

:<b>b. <section begin=req10b /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Social
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req10b /></b>

:<b>c. <section begin=req10c /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Personal
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req10c /></b>

:<b>d. <section begin=req10d /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Spiritual
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req10d /></b>

<b>11. <section begin=req11 /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Know the difference between juniors (10-12 years old) and teens (13-15 years old)in the following areas:
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req11 /></b>

:<b>a. <section begin=req10d /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Physical
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req10d /></b>

:<b>b. <section begin=req10d /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Emotional
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req10d /></b>

:<b>c. <section begin=req10d /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Mental
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req10d /></b>

:<b>d. <section begin=req10d /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Spiritual
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req10d /></b>

<b>12. <section begin=req12 /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Have seven of the following honors. Any of the honors earned more than two years ago should be restudied so that you can answer any of the knowledge questions included in the honor.
{| border=0 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=5 align="center" width=100%
|-
|
[[AY Honors/Animal Tracking|Animal Tracking]]<br>
[[AY Honors/Birds|Birds]]<br>
[[AY Honors/Ecology|Ecology]]<br>
[[AY Honors/Edible Wild Plants|Edible Wild Plants]]<br>
[[AY Honors/Ferns|Ferns]]<br>
[[AY Honors/Flowers|Flowers]]<br>
[[AY Honors/Fungi|Fungi]]<br>
|
[[AY Honors/Geology|Geology]]<br>
[[AY Honors/Grasses|Grasses]]<br>
[[AY Honors/Insects|Insects]]<br>
[[AY Honors/Mammals|Mammals]]<br>
[[AY Honors/Marine Invertebrates|Marine Invertebrates]]<br>
[[AY Honors/Reptiles|Reptiles]]<br>
|
[[AY Honors/Rocks & Minerals|Rocks & Minerals]]<br>
[[AY Honors/Shells|Shells]]<br>
[[AY Honors/Spiders|Spiders]]<br>
[[AY Honors/Stars|Stars]]<br>
[[AY Honors/Trees|Trees]]<br>
[[AY Honors/Weather|Weather]]<br>
|}


<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req12 /></b>

<b>13. <section begin=req13 /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Plan, organize, and carry out one of the following for one weekend with a group of not less than five:
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req13 /></b>

:<b>a. <section begin=req13a /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Outdoor spiritual retreat
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req13a /></b>

:<b>b. <section begin=req13b /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Canoe trip
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req13b /></b>

:<b>c. <section begin=req13c /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Bicycle trip
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req13c /></b>

:<b>d. <section begin=req13d /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Horseback trip
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req13d /></b>

:<b>e. <section begin=req13e /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Backpack trip
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req13e /></b>
<section end=Body />

<noinclude><translate>

[[Category:Honor Requirements|{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|1|2}}]]
[[Category:Honor Requirements Revision 3|{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|1|2}}]]
<noinclude></translate></noinclude>

AY Honors/Outdoor Leadership - Advanced/Requirements

2021-09-17T18:44:18Z

MBoismier:

{{HonorSubpage}}

<section begin=Body />

<b>1. <section begin=req1 /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Have the Outdoor Leadership honor.
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req1 /></b>

<b>2. <section begin=req2 /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Earn three honors, not previously earned, from the Wilderness Master Award.
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req2 /></b>

<b>3. <section begin=req3 /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Have a First Aid and CPR Honors and a current certificate for them. In addition to these honors, know the prevention and symptoms of, and first aid treatment for the following:
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req3 /></b>

:<b>a. <section begin=req3a /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Hypothermia
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req3a /></b>

:<b>b. <section begin=req3b /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Venomous snake bite
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req3b /></b>

:<b>c. <section begin=req3c /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Heat and sun stroke
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req3c /></b>

:<b>d. <section begin=req3d /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Heat exhaustion
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req3d /></b>

:<b>e. <section begin=req3e /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Poison ivy & poison oak reaction
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req3e /></b>

:<b>f. <section begin=req3f /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Open wound infection
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req3f /></b>

:<b>g. <section begin=req3g /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Altitude sickness
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req3g /></b>

:<b>h. <section begin=req3h /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Dehydration
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req3h /></b>

<b>4. <section begin=req4 /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Prepare outlines and present seven different worships to be shared during a camping experience. Utilize scriptural texts and principles, and illustrate these with examples available during the camping experience.
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req4 /></b>

<b>5. <section begin=req5 /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Outline a personal testimony that could be used to start a friendship between a person and Christ. The testimony could include how Jesus became your personal Savior, a miracle that has happened in your life, etc. Present this testimony to a group of youth in an outdoor setting.
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req5 /></b>

<b>6. <section begin=req6 /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Know how to control the panic of someone who is lost.
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req6 /></b>

<section begin=challenge />
<b>7. <section begin=req7 /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Develop a search and rescue plan for a specific location, 50 acres (20 hectares) or more, in your area. This plan should utilize at least ten individuals, and you should coordinate each one's activity and search zone. List specific equipment that might be needed for communication, first aid, and victim transport appropriate for the chosen location.
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req7 /></b>
<section end=challenge />

<b>8. <section begin=req8 /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Outline your philosophy for wilderness etiquette. Participate in one to three hours of a wilderness conservation project.
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req8 /></b>

<b>9. <section begin=req9 /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Teach at least one honor found in the Wilderness Master group.
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req9 /></b>

<b>10. <section begin=req10 /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Know at least four objectives for outdoor leadership in each of the following categories:
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req10 /></b>

:<b>a. <section begin=req10a /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Physical
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req10a /></b>

:<b>b. <section begin=req10b /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Social
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req10b /></b>

:<b>c. <section begin=req10c /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Personal
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req10c /></b>

:<b>d. <section begin=req10d /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Spiritual
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req10d /></b>

<b>11. <section begin=req11 /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Know the difference between juniors (10-12 years old) and teens (13-15 years old)in the following areas:
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req11 /></b>

:<b>a. <section begin=req10d /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Physical
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req10d /></b>

<b>12. <section begin=req12 /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Have seven of the following honors. Any of the honors earned more than two years ago should be restudied so that you can answer any of the knowledge questions included in the honor.
{| border=0 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=5 align="center" width=100%
|-
|
[[AY Honors/Animal Tracking|Animal Tracking]]<br>
[[AY Honors/Birds|Birds]]<br>
[[AY Honors/Ecology|Ecology]]<br>
[[AY Honors/Edible Wild Plants|Edible Wild Plants]]<br>
[[AY Honors/Ferns|Ferns]]<br>
[[AY Honors/Flowers|Flowers]]<br>
[[AY Honors/Fungi|Fungi]]<br>
|
[[AY Honors/Geology|Geology]]<br>
[[AY Honors/Grasses|Grasses]]<br>
[[AY Honors/Insects|Insects]]<br>
[[AY Honors/Mammals|Mammals]]<br>
[[AY Honors/Marine Invertebrates|Marine Invertebrates]]<br>
[[AY Honors/Reptiles|Reptiles]]<br>
|
[[AY Honors/Rocks & Minerals|Rocks & Minerals]]<br>
[[AY Honors/Shells|Shells]]<br>
[[AY Honors/Spiders|Spiders]]<br>
[[AY Honors/Stars|Stars]]<br>
[[AY Honors/Trees|Trees]]<br>
[[AY Honors/Weather|Weather]]<br>
|}


<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req12 /></b>

<b>13. <section begin=req13 /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Plan, organize, and carry out one of the following for one weekend with a group of not less than five:
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req13 /></b>

:<b>a. <section begin=req13a /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Outdoor spiritual retreat
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req13a /></b>

:<b>b. <section begin=req13b /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Canoe trip
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req13b /></b>

:<b>c. <section begin=req13c /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Bicycle trip
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req13c /></b>

:<b>d. <section begin=req13d /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Horseback trip
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req13d /></b>

:<b>e. <section begin=req13e /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Backpack trip
<noinclude></translate></noinclude><section end=req13e /></b>
<section end=Body />

<noinclude><translate>

[[Category:Honor Requirements|{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|1|2}}]]
[[Category:Honor Requirements Revision 3|{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|1|2}}]]
<noinclude></translate></noinclude>

AY Honors/Orienteering/Answer Key

2021-09-17T18:28:40Z

MBoismier:

{{HonorSubpage}}
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</noinclude>
{{division variant (GC)|division=South Pacific Division}}
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<section begin="Body" />
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Topographic maps are also commonly called contour maps or "topo maps." Topographic maps conventionally show topography, or land contours, by means of contour lines. Contour lines are curves that connect contiguous points of the same altitude. In other words, every point on the marked line of 100 m elevation is 100 m above mean sea level.


Other than showing elevation via the contours, you can also expect a topographic map to show any important landmarks, such as rivers, lakes, and roads. They will often also show railroad tracks and major power lines (and their towers). Power lines are especially handy because the towers are visible from great distances and each represents a point on a map (whereas a road or river would represent a curved line). These attributes make them ideal for pinpointing position.


Topographic maps have many uses, letting a competent user determine any of the following:
* Where he is.
* How to get where he wants to go.
* What the terrain is like in a given area (steepness, for example).
* Where a river comes from and goes to.
* The route a hiking trail follows.
* The location of campsites.
* The distance between two points.
* Elevation of a mountaintop.
* Latitude and longitude of any point on the map.
* What areas may be susceptible to avalanches or flooding.


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These symbols are used by the U.S. National Park Service:
<gallery>
Image:NPS map symbol airport.png|Airport
Image:NPS map symbol boat launch.png|Boat launch
Image:NPS map symbol campground.png|Campground
Image:NPS map symbol canoe access.png|Canoe access
Image:NPS map symbol drinking water.png|Drinking water
Image:NPS map symbol first aid.png|First aid
Image:NPS map symbol fishing.png|Fishing
Image:NPS map symbol food service.png|Food service
Image:NPS map symbol four wheel drive road.png|Four-wheel drive access
Image:NPS map symbol gas station.png|Gas station
Image:NPS map symbol hospital.png|Hospital
Image:NPS map symbol information.png|Information
Image:NPS map symbol litter receptacle.png|Litter receptacle
Image:NPS map symbol lodging.png|Lodging
Image:NPS map symbol parking.png|Parking area
Image:NPS map symbol picnic area.png|Picnic area
Image:NPS map symbol ranger station.png|Ranger station
Image:NPS map symbol recycling.png|Recycling
Image:NPS map symbol restrooms.png|Restrooms
Image:NPS map symbol rv campground.png|RV campground
Image:NPS map symbol self guiding trail.png|Self-guiding trail
Image:NPS map symbol shelter.png|Shelter
Image:NPS map symbol store.png|Store
Image:NPS map symbol telephone.png|Telephone
Image:NPS map symbol trailhead.png|Trailhead
Image:NPS map symbol bridge.png|Bridge
Image:NPS map symbol hiking trail.png|Hiking trail
Image:NPS map symbol marsh.png|Marsh
Image:NPS map symbol parking area.png|Parking area
Image:NPS map symbol rapids.png|Rapids
Image:NPS map symbols spring.png|Spring
Image:NPS map symbol unpaved road.png|Unpaved road
</gallery>


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[[File:Lensatic compass.gif|frame|Lensatic Compass]]
<br style="clear:both">
The lensatic compass consists of three major parts: the cover, the base, and the lens.


;a. Cover: The compass cover protects the floating dial. It contains the sighting wire (front sight) and two luminous sighting slots or dots used for night navigation.


;b. Base: The body of the compass contains the following movable parts:
:# The floating dial is mounted on a pivot so it can rotate freely when the compass is held level. Printed on the dial in luminous figures are an arrow and the letters E and W. The arrow always points to magnetic north and the letters fall at east (E) 90° and west (W) 270° on the dial. There are two scales; the outer scale denotes mils and the inner scale (normally in red) denotes degrees.
:# Encasing the floating dial is a glass containing a fixed black index line.
:# The bezel ring is a ratchet device that clicks when turned (on some compasses). It contains 120 clicks when rotated fully; each click is equal to 3°. A short luminous line that is used in conjunction with the north-seeking arrow during navigation is contained in the glass face of the bezel ring.
:# The thumb loop is attached to the base of the compass.


;c. Lens: The lens is used to read the dial, and it contains the rear-sight slot used in conjunction with the front for sighting on objects. The rear sight also serves as a lock and clamps the dial when closed for its protection. The rear sight must be opened more than 45° to allow the dial to float freely.


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The height of a point relative to sea level.
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The elevation change between adjacent contour lines on a topographic map. If you travel from one contour line to another, your change in elevation will equal the contour interval.
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Magnetic North is the direction a compass will point, which is towards the North Magnetic Pole. The North Magnetic Pole is not the same place as the Geographic North Pole. The North Magnetic Pole is the point on the Earth's surface where the Earth's magnetic field points directly downwards. This pole is constantly wandering; its estimated 2005 position was 82.7° N 114.4° W.
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The angular difference between magnetic north and true north (defined in reference to the Geographic North Pole), at any particular location on the Earth's surface, is called the magnetic declination. In other words, it's how far off a compass is from True North, or the correction that must be applied to a compass reading.
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An important property of a map is the scale. It can be indicated by a scale bar and/or a ratio 1:n. This enables the map user to measure a distance on the map and determine the distance on the ground. These days maps are usually produced under the metric system which makes it easy to perform this task. Maps are usually produced at standard scale factors of (say) 1:10,000 or 1:50,000 or 1:100,000 and all you need to do is take a measurement on the map (in mm) and multiply that figure by the scale factor to determine the distance on the ground. However, maps from some countries may use imperial units, especially older maps. These maps displayed scale ratios but often they were of the form 60 chains (a chain is 22 yards, or 66 feet) to 1 inch or 2 miles to 1 inch, etc.
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The act of determining distance on a map and translating it to distance on the ground. In order to do this translation, you must know the map's scale (see above). Measuring can be done with a ruler or with calipers.
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See under '''azimuth''' below.
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True North is the direction from any point on the Earth's surface to the Geographic North Pole.
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The azimuth is a compass bearing expressed in degrees. There are 360° in a circle, and North is, by convention,
0° (or 360°). East is 90°, South is 180°, and West is 270°. While azimuth expresses the compass bearing in the
direction of interest, the '''Back Azimuth''' expresses the compass bearing in exactly the opposite direction.
In other words, azimuth is the direction to which you are going, and back azimuth is the direction from which
you are coming. The back azimuth can be calculated by adding or subtracting 180° from the azimuth. Add if the
azimuth is less than 180°, otherwise subtract.
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Distance is the measure of length, or how far apart two points are away from each other.
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The surface of the earth; the outer crust of the globe, or some indefinite portion of it.


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The techniques employed to find the magnetic azimuth when using the lensatic compass are as follows:
=== Using the Centerhold Technique === 
[[File:Compass_center_hold.gif|frame|Centerhold technique]]
First, open the compass to its fullest so that the cover forms a straightedge with the base. Move the lens (rear sight) to the rearmost position, allowing the dial to float freely. Next, place your thumb through the thumb loop, form a steady base with your third and fourth fingers, and extend your index finger along the side of the compass. Place the thumb of the other hand between the lens (rear sight) and the bezel ring; extend the index finger along the remaining side of the compass, and the remaining fingers around the fingers of the other hand. Pull your elbows firmly into your sides; this will place the compass between your chin and your belt. To measure an azimuth, simply turn your entire body toward the object, pointing the compass cover directly at the object. Once you are pointing at the object, look down and read the azimuth from beneath the fixed black index line. This preferred method offers the following advantages over the sighting technique:
# It is faster and easier to use.
# It can be used under all conditions of visibility.
# It can be used when navigating over any type of terrain.
# It can be used without putting down other gear; however, any other gear must be slung back out of the way.
# It can be used without removing eyeglasses.
=== Using the Compass-to-Cheek Technique ===
[[File:Compass_to_cheek.gif|frame|Compass-to-cheek technique]]
The compass-to-cheek technique is used almost exclusively for sighting, and it is the best technique for this purpose.


Fold the cover of the compass containing the sighting wire to a vertical position; then fold the rear sight slightly forward. Look through the rear-sight slot and align the front-sight hairline with the desired object in the distance. Then glance down at the dial through the eye lens to read the azimuth.
<br style="clear:both">


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[[File:Compass shooting azimuth.gif|frame|Compass preset at 320 degrees.]]
<br style="clear:both">


Although different models of the lensatic compass vary somewhat in the details of their use, the principles are the same.


# Hold the compass level in the palm of the hand.
# Rotate it until the desired azimuth falls under the fixed black index line (for example, 320°), maintaining the azimuth as prescribed.
# Turn the bezel ring until the luminous line is aligned with the north-seeking arrow. Once the alignment is obtained, the compass is preset.
# To follow an azimuth, assume the centerhold technique and turn your body until the north-seeking arrow is aligned with the luminous line. Then proceed forward in the direction of the front cover's sighting wire, which is aligned with the fixed black index line that contains the desired azimuth.


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=== Method #1 === 
(These directions assume your orienting arrow lines up with the North indicator on your compass dial, meaning the compass has not been adjusted for declination).


A) Obtain the local magnetic declination for the area represented on your map. At the bottom of every USGS map is a diagram that displays the difference & direction between true north (represented as a star), grid north (abbreviated as “GN”), and magnetic north (abbreviated as “MN”). Magnetic declination is the number of degrees and direction between true north and magnetic north. Because declination varies over time, it is advisable to get a reasonably current figure. If your USGS map is more than 15 years old (the declination date appears in the diagram), here’s an easy-to-use website that gives you only the information you need for your specific area:


http://geomag.nrcan.gc.ca/apps/mdcal-eng.php


If magnetic north is east of true north, the local declination is positive.


If magnetic north is west of true north, the local declination is negative.


B) Draw a line on the map that connects your starting point with the destination (your “map bearing”). Extend the line all the way through the map border (the “neat line”).


C) Distance yourself from any nearby metal such as keys, belt buckle, desk, car, fence, etc. Place the compass on the map so the needle’s pivot point is directly over the intersection of your map bearing and neat line.


D) Rotate the dial until compass ring north agrees with map north. Read your map bearing from the compass dial. Make sure the bearing agrees with your direction of travel – for example, if you intend to travel due east, the bearing is 90 degrees, not 270 degrees.


E) Do this step mentally – don’t turn the compass dial. If the local declination is positive, then subtract the declination amount from the bearing you just derived. If the local declination is negative, then add the declination amount to the bearing you just derived.


F) Turn the compass dial until the figure you calculated in step E lines up with the index line.


G) Lift the compass off the map, and with the direction of travel arrow pointing directly away from you, rotate your body and the compass all in one motion until the red magnetic needle overlays the orienting arrow.


H) Sight a landmark along this bearing, and proceed to it. Repeat this step until you reach your destination.

=== Method #2: === 
(These directions assume your orienting arrow lines up with the North indicator on your compass dial, meaning the compass has not been adjusted for declination).


A) Obtain the local magnetic declination for the area represented on your map. At the bottom of every USGS map is a diagram that displays the difference & direction between true north (represented as a star), grid north (abbreviated as “GN”), and magnetic north (abbreviated as “MN”). Magnetic declination is the number of degrees and direction between true north and magnetic north. Because declination varies over time, it is advisable to get a reasonably current figure. If your USGS map is more than 15 years old (the declination date appears in the diagram), here’s an easy-to-use website that gives you only the information you need:


http://geomag.nrcan.gc.ca/apps/mdcal-eng.php


If magnetic north is east of true north, the local declination is positive


If magnetic north is west of true north, the local declination is negative.


B) Draw a line on the map that connects your starting point with the destination (your “map bearing”).


C) Distance yourself from any nearby metal such as keys, belt buckle, desk, car, fence etc.


D) Place the compass on the map so the baseplate is parallel to the line you drew. Make sure the direction of travel arrow points to your destination.


E) Rotate the dial until compass ring north agrees with map north. Do not move the compass when you rotate the dial.


F) Remove the compass from the map and, with the direction of travel arrow pointing directly away from you, rotate your body and the compass all in one motion until the red magnetic needle overlays the orienting arrow.


G) If local declination is positive, then subtract the declination amount (turn the dial clockwise). If local declination is negative, then add the declination amount (turn the dial counter-clockwise).


H) Again, with the direction of travel arrow pointing directly away from you, rotate your body and compass all in one motion until the red magnetic needle overlays the orienting arrow. Sight a landmark along this direction of travel and proceed to it. Repeat this step until you reach your destination.

=== Adjustable Declination Compasses: === 


A compass with adjustable declination allows you to rotate the orienting arrow independently of the compass dial. If you have such a compass, you may calculate your map bearing without adding or subtracting the amount of local magnetic declination. To calibrate your compass in this fashion, rotate the inner liquid capsule (or turn the screw with the key) until the orienting arrow deviates from the compass ring’s north indicator by the amount & direction of the local magnetic declination. For example, if local declination is 10 degrees east of true north, rotate the inner liquid capsule (or turn the screw with the key) until the orienting arrow points to 10 degrees east. If using Method #1, you do not need to add or subtract as indicated in step E; just make sure compass ring north (not the orienting arrow) agrees with map north as directed in step D. If using Method #2, skip steps G and H; again, be sure compass ring north (not the orienting arrow) agrees with map north as directed in step E.

=== Magnetic Declination Varies Considerably Across The United States === 


The magnetic needle in a compass is attracted by the magnetism of the Earth, and therefore always points to the constantly shifting Magnetic North Pole. The Geographic North Pole is static and is located about 1200 miles north of the Magnetic Pole. Maps and directions are usually oriented toward the Geographic Pole, also referred to as "True North."


Magnetic declination is the direction and amount of variation between the Magnetic Pole and True North. The amount and direction of declination depends upon how those two poles align relative to a given point on Earth. When the two poles align, declination is zero, and the line of zero declination is termed the agonic line. At points west of the agonic line, a magnetic needle will point east of true north (positive declination). At points east of the agonic line, a magnetic needle will point west of true north (negative declination). There is a pattern, but it does not follow meridians or parallels. Isogonic lines are like magnetic contour lines -they trace a path of constant magnetic declination.
[[File:Magneticdeclination.jpg]]
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Place the compass on the map so the baseplate parallels the north-to-south map neat line. Rotate the dial until compass ring North agrees with map North. Add or subtract the amount needed to adjust for local magnetic declination (subtract if local declination is positive, add if local declination is negative); if your adjustable declination compass is already calibrated for local declination, you don’t need to add or subtract, just make sure compass ring North (not the orienting arrow) agrees with map North. Holding the map and compass steadily (the baseplate should still be on the north-to-south map neat line), rotate the map and compass all in one motion until the red magnetic needle overlays the orienting arrow. Again, make sure there is no interference from metal when you perform this (ex: rebar in concrete). Your map and your compass are now oriented to true north. Compare the physical features around you with your map to help derive your location on the map.


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Resection is a method of using a compass and a map to determine your current position. The first step is to find a feature of the landscape that you can also identify on the map. This could be a mountain peak, an intersection, a bridge, or even a utility pole (some topographic maps mark where high-voltage lines are, as well as the position of the poles that hold them up). The closer these two landmarks are to 90° offset from one another, the more accurate the resection will be. For instance, if the first landmark is at 115°, choose the second one as close to either 205° (115°+90°) or 25° (115°-90°) as you can. This is not a hard and fast rule, and the prominence of the landmark may well be more important than the 90° offset. Once you have shot an azimuth to the first landmark, calculate the ''back azimuth'', and plot a line on your map from the landmark towards (and past) your current position (which should be somewhere on that line). Be sure to correct for declination when plotting this line. Then shoot the azimuth of the second landmark, and plot ''it's'' back azimuth on the map as well, again correcting for declination. If your readings are accurate and your plotting was done carefully, your current position should be very close to where these two lines intersect.


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== References == 
*Answer to requirements 5 and 6 were adapted from the [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/policy/army/fm/3-25-26/ch9.htm U.S. Army Field Manual FM 3-25.26]
*Answers to requirement 7 and 8 were taken verbatim from http://education.usgs.gov/common/lessons/how_to_use_a_compass_with_a_usgs_topographic_map.html
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AY Honors/Orienteering/Answer Key

2021-09-17T18:27:19Z

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Topographic maps are also commonly called contour maps or "topo maps." Topographic maps conventionally show topography, or land contours, by means of contour lines. Contour lines are curves that connect contiguous points of the same altitude. In other words, every point on the marked line of 100 m elevation is 100 m above mean sea level.


Other than showing elevation via the contours, you can also expect a topographic map to show any important landmarks, such as rivers, lakes, and roads. They will often also show railroad tracks and major power lines (and their towers). Power lines are especially handy because the towers are visible from great distances and each represents a point on a map (whereas a road or river would represent a curved line). These attributes make them ideal for pinpointing position.


Topographic maps have many uses, letting a competent user determine any of the following:
* Where he is.
* How to get where he wants to go.
* What the terrain is like in a given area (steepness, for example).
* Where a river comes from and goes to.
* The route a hiking trail follows.
* The location of campsites.
* The distance between two points.
* Elevation of a mountaintop.
* Latitude and longitude of any point on the map.
* What areas may be susceptible to avalanches or flooding.


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These symbols are used by the U.S. National Park Service:
<gallery>
Image:NPS map symbol airport.png|Airport
Image:NPS map symbol boat launch.png|Boat launch
Image:NPS map symbol campground.png|Campground
Image:NPS map symbol canoe access.png|Canoe access
Image:NPS map symbol drinking water.png|Drinking water
Image:NPS map symbol first aid.png|First aid
Image:NPS map symbol fishing.png|Fishing
Image:NPS map symbol food service.png|Food service
Image:NPS map symbol four wheel drive road.png|Four-wheel drive access
Image:NPS map symbol gas station.png|Gas station
Image:NPS map symbol hospital.png|Hospital
Image:NPS map symbol information.png|Information
Image:NPS map symbol litter receptacle.png|Litter receptacle
Image:NPS map symbol lodging.png|Lodging
Image:NPS map symbol parking.png|Parking area
Image:NPS map symbol picnic area.png|Picnic area
Image:NPS map symbol ranger station.png|Ranger station
Image:NPS map symbol recycling.png|Recycling
Image:NPS map symbol restrooms.png|Restrooms
Image:NPS map symbol rv campground.png|RV campground
Image:NPS map symbol self guiding trail.png|Self-guiding trail
Image:NPS map symbol shelter.png|Shelter
Image:NPS map symbol store.png|Store
Image:NPS map symbol telephone.png|Telephone
Image:NPS map symbol trailhead.png|Trailhead
Image:NPS map symbol bridge.png|Bridge
Image:NPS map symbol hiking trail.png|Hiking trail
Image:NPS map symbol marsh.png|Marsh
Image:NPS map symbol parking area.png|Parking area
Image:NPS map symbol rapids.png|Rapids
Image:NPS map symbols spring.png|Spring
Image:NPS map symbol unpaved road.png|Unpaved road
</gallery>


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[[File:Lensatic compass.gif|frame|Lensatic Compass]]
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The lensatic compass consists of three major parts: the cover, the base, and the lens.


;a. Cover: The compass cover protects the floating dial. It contains the sighting wire (front sight) and two luminous sighting slots or dots used for night navigation.


;b. Base: The body of the compass contains the following movable parts:
:# The floating dial is mounted on a pivot so it can rotate freely when the compass is held level. Printed on the dial in luminous figures are an arrow and the letters E and W. The arrow always points to magnetic north and the letters fall at east (E) 90° and west (W) 270° on the dial. There are two scales; the outer scale denotes mils and the inner scale (normally in red) denotes degrees.
:# Encasing the floating dial is a glass containing a fixed black index line.
:# The bezel ring is a ratchet device that clicks when turned (on some compasses). It contains 120 clicks when rotated fully; each click is equal to 3°. A short luminous line that is used in conjunction with the north-seeking arrow during navigation is contained in the glass face of the bezel ring.
:# The thumb loop is attached to the base of the compass.


;c. Lens: The lens is used to read the dial, and it contains the rear-sight slot used in conjunction with the front for sighting on objects. The rear sight also serves as a lock and clamps the dial when closed for its protection. The rear sight must be opened more than 45° to allow the dial to float freely.


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The height of a point relative to sea level.
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The elevation change between adjacent contour lines on a topographic map. If you travel from one contour line to another, your change in elevation will equal the contour interval.
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Magnetic North is the direction a compass will point, which is towards the North Magnetic Pole. The North Magnetic Pole is not the same place as the Geographic North Pole. The North Magnetic Pole is the point on the Earth's surface where the Earth's magnetic field points directly downwards. This pole is constantly wandering; its estimated 2005 position was 82.7° N 114.4° W.
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The angular difference between magnetic north and true north (defined in reference to the Geographic North Pole), at any particular location on the Earth's surface, is called the magnetic declination. In other words, it's how far off a compass is from True North, or the correction that must be applied to a compass reading.
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An important property of a map is the scale. It can be indicated by a scale bar and/or a ratio 1:n. This enables the map user to measure a distance on the map and determine the distance on the ground. These days maps are usually produced under the metric system which makes it easy to perform this task. Maps are usually produced at standard scale factors of (say) 1:10,000 or 1:50,000 or 1:100,000 and all you need to do is take a measurement on the map (in mm) and multiply that figure by the scale factor to determine the distance on the ground. However, maps from some countries may use imperial units, especially older maps. These maps displayed scale ratios but often they were of the form 60 chains (a chain is 22 yards, or 66 feet) to 1 inch or 2 miles to 1 inch, etc.
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The act of determining distance on a map and translating it to distance on the ground. In order to do this translation, you must know the map's scale (see above). Measuring can be done with a ruler or with calipers.
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See under '''azimuth''' below.
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True North is the direction from any point on the Earth's surface to the Geographic North Pole.
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The azimuth is a compass bearing expressed in degrees. There are 360° in a circle, and North is, by convention, 0° (or 360°).
East is 90°, South is 180°, and West is 270°. While azimuth expresses the compass bearing in the direction of interest,
the '''Back Azimuth''' expresses the compass bearing in exactly the opposite direction. In other words, azimuth is
the direction to which you are going, and back azimuth is the direction from which you are coming.
The back azimuth can be calculated by adding or subtracting 180° from the azimuth. Add if the azimuth is less than 180°,
otherwise subtract.
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Distance is the measure of length, or how far apart two points are away from each other.
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The surface of the earth; the outer crust of the globe, or some indefinite portion of it.


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The techniques employed to find the magnetic azimuth when using the lensatic compass are as follows:
=== Using the Centerhold Technique === 
[[File:Compass_center_hold.gif|frame|Centerhold technique]]
First, open the compass to its fullest so that the cover forms a straightedge with the base. Move the lens (rear sight) to the rearmost position, allowing the dial to float freely. Next, place your thumb through the thumb loop, form a steady base with your third and fourth fingers, and extend your index finger along the side of the compass. Place the thumb of the other hand between the lens (rear sight) and the bezel ring; extend the index finger along the remaining side of the compass, and the remaining fingers around the fingers of the other hand. Pull your elbows firmly into your sides; this will place the compass between your chin and your belt. To measure an azimuth, simply turn your entire body toward the object, pointing the compass cover directly at the object. Once you are pointing at the object, look down and read the azimuth from beneath the fixed black index line. This preferred method offers the following advantages over the sighting technique:
# It is faster and easier to use.
# It can be used under all conditions of visibility.
# It can be used when navigating over any type of terrain.
# It can be used without putting down other gear; however, any other gear must be slung back out of the way.
# It can be used without removing eyeglasses.
=== Using the Compass-to-Cheek Technique ===
[[File:Compass_to_cheek.gif|frame|Compass-to-cheek technique]]
The compass-to-cheek technique is used almost exclusively for sighting, and it is the best technique for this purpose.


Fold the cover of the compass containing the sighting wire to a vertical position; then fold the rear sight slightly forward. Look through the rear-sight slot and align the front-sight hairline with the desired object in the distance. Then glance down at the dial through the eye lens to read the azimuth.
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[[File:Compass shooting azimuth.gif|frame|Compass preset at 320 degrees.]]
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Although different models of the lensatic compass vary somewhat in the details of their use, the principles are the same.


# Hold the compass level in the palm of the hand.
# Rotate it until the desired azimuth falls under the fixed black index line (for example, 320°), maintaining the azimuth as prescribed.
# Turn the bezel ring until the luminous line is aligned with the north-seeking arrow. Once the alignment is obtained, the compass is preset.
# To follow an azimuth, assume the centerhold technique and turn your body until the north-seeking arrow is aligned with the luminous line. Then proceed forward in the direction of the front cover's sighting wire, which is aligned with the fixed black index line that contains the desired azimuth.


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=== Method #1 === 
(These directions assume your orienting arrow lines up with the North indicator on your compass dial, meaning the compass has not been adjusted for declination).


A) Obtain the local magnetic declination for the area represented on your map. At the bottom of every USGS map is a diagram that displays the difference & direction between true north (represented as a star), grid north (abbreviated as “GN”), and magnetic north (abbreviated as “MN”). Magnetic declination is the number of degrees and direction between true north and magnetic north. Because declination varies over time, it is advisable to get a reasonably current figure. If your USGS map is more than 15 years old (the declination date appears in the diagram), here’s an easy-to-use website that gives you only the information you need for your specific area:


http://geomag.nrcan.gc.ca/apps/mdcal-eng.php


If magnetic north is east of true north, the local declination is positive.


If magnetic north is west of true north, the local declination is negative.


B) Draw a line on the map that connects your starting point with the destination (your “map bearing”). Extend the line all the way through the map border (the “neat line”).


C) Distance yourself from any nearby metal such as keys, belt buckle, desk, car, fence, etc. Place the compass on the map so the needle’s pivot point is directly over the intersection of your map bearing and neat line.


D) Rotate the dial until compass ring north agrees with map north. Read your map bearing from the compass dial. Make sure the bearing agrees with your direction of travel – for example, if you intend to travel due east, the bearing is 90 degrees, not 270 degrees.


E) Do this step mentally – don’t turn the compass dial. If the local declination is positive, then subtract the declination amount from the bearing you just derived. If the local declination is negative, then add the declination amount to the bearing you just derived.


F) Turn the compass dial until the figure you calculated in step E lines up with the index line.


G) Lift the compass off the map, and with the direction of travel arrow pointing directly away from you, rotate your body and the compass all in one motion until the red magnetic needle overlays the orienting arrow.


H) Sight a landmark along this bearing, and proceed to it. Repeat this step until you reach your destination.

=== Method #2: === 
(These directions assume your orienting arrow lines up with the North indicator on your compass dial, meaning the compass has not been adjusted for declination).


A) Obtain the local magnetic declination for the area represented on your map. At the bottom of every USGS map is a diagram that displays the difference & direction between true north (represented as a star), grid north (abbreviated as “GN”), and magnetic north (abbreviated as “MN”). Magnetic declination is the number of degrees and direction between true north and magnetic north. Because declination varies over time, it is advisable to get a reasonably current figure. If your USGS map is more than 15 years old (the declination date appears in the diagram), here’s an easy-to-use website that gives you only the information you need:


http://geomag.nrcan.gc.ca/apps/mdcal-eng.php


If magnetic north is east of true north, the local declination is positive


If magnetic north is west of true north, the local declination is negative.


B) Draw a line on the map that connects your starting point with the destination (your “map bearing”).


C) Distance yourself from any nearby metal such as keys, belt buckle, desk, car, fence etc.


D) Place the compass on the map so the baseplate is parallel to the line you drew. Make sure the direction of travel arrow points to your destination.


E) Rotate the dial until compass ring north agrees with map north. Do not move the compass when you rotate the dial.


F) Remove the compass from the map and, with the direction of travel arrow pointing directly away from you, rotate your body and the compass all in one motion until the red magnetic needle overlays the orienting arrow.


G) If local declination is positive, then subtract the declination amount (turn the dial clockwise). If local declination is negative, then add the declination amount (turn the dial counter-clockwise).


H) Again, with the direction of travel arrow pointing directly away from you, rotate your body and compass all in one motion until the red magnetic needle overlays the orienting arrow. Sight a landmark along this direction of travel and proceed to it. Repeat this step until you reach your destination.

=== Adjustable Declination Compasses: === 


A compass with adjustable declination allows you to rotate the orienting arrow independently of the compass dial. If you have such a compass, you may calculate your map bearing without adding or subtracting the amount of local magnetic declination. To calibrate your compass in this fashion, rotate the inner liquid capsule (or turn the screw with the key) until the orienting arrow deviates from the compass ring’s north indicator by the amount & direction of the local magnetic declination. For example, if local declination is 10 degrees east of true north, rotate the inner liquid capsule (or turn the screw with the key) until the orienting arrow points to 10 degrees east. If using Method #1, you do not need to add or subtract as indicated in step E; just make sure compass ring north (not the orienting arrow) agrees with map north as directed in step D. If using Method #2, skip steps G and H; again, be sure compass ring north (not the orienting arrow) agrees with map north as directed in step E.

=== Magnetic Declination Varies Considerably Across The United States === 


The magnetic needle in a compass is attracted by the magnetism of the Earth, and therefore always points to the constantly shifting Magnetic North Pole. The Geographic North Pole is static and is located about 1200 miles north of the Magnetic Pole. Maps and directions are usually oriented toward the Geographic Pole, also referred to as "True North."


Magnetic declination is the direction and amount of variation between the Magnetic Pole and True North. The amount and direction of declination depends upon how those two poles align relative to a given point on Earth. When the two poles align, declination is zero, and the line of zero declination is termed the agonic line. At points west of the agonic line, a magnetic needle will point east of true north (positive declination). At points east of the agonic line, a magnetic needle will point west of true north (negative declination). There is a pattern, but it does not follow meridians or parallels. Isogonic lines are like magnetic contour lines -they trace a path of constant magnetic declination.
[[File:Magneticdeclination.jpg]]
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Place the compass on the map so the baseplate parallels the north-to-south map neat line. Rotate the dial until compass ring North agrees with map North. Add or subtract the amount needed to adjust for local magnetic declination (subtract if local declination is positive, add if local declination is negative); if your adjustable declination compass is already calibrated for local declination, you don’t need to add or subtract, just make sure compass ring North (not the orienting arrow) agrees with map North. Holding the map and compass steadily (the baseplate should still be on the north-to-south map neat line), rotate the map and compass all in one motion until the red magnetic needle overlays the orienting arrow. Again, make sure there is no interference from metal when you perform this (ex: rebar in concrete). Your map and your compass are now oriented to true north. Compare the physical features around you with your map to help derive your location on the map.


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Resection is a method of using a compass and a map to determine your current position. The first step is to find a feature of the landscape that you can also identify on the map. This could be a mountain peak, an intersection, a bridge, or even a utility pole (some topographic maps mark where high-voltage lines are, as well as the position of the poles that hold them up). The closer these two landmarks are to 90° offset from one another, the more accurate the resection will be. For instance, if the first landmark is at 115°, choose the second one as close to either 205° (115°+90°) or 25° (115°-90°) as you can. This is not a hard and fast rule, and the prominence of the landmark may well be more important than the 90° offset. Once you have shot an azimuth to the first landmark, calculate the ''back azimuth'', and plot a line on your map from the landmark towards (and past) your current position (which should be somewhere on that line). Be sure to correct for declination when plotting this line. Then shoot the azimuth of the second landmark, and plot ''it's'' back azimuth on the map as well, again correcting for declination. If your readings are accurate and your plotting was done carefully, your current position should be very close to where these two lines intersect.


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== References == 
*Answer to requirements 5 and 6 were adapted from the [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/policy/army/fm/3-25-26/ch9.htm U.S. Army Field Manual FM 3-25.26]
*Answers to requirement 7 and 8 were taken verbatim from http://education.usgs.gov/common/lessons/how_to_use_a_compass_with_a_usgs_topographic_map.html
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AY Honors/Kites/Answer Key

2021-09-17T17:58:10Z

MBoismier:

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Approximately 2600 years ago the kite was first made and popularized in China, where materials ideal for kite building were readily available: silk fabric for sail material, fine, high-tensile-strength silk for flying line, and resilient bamboo for a strong, lightweight framework. The kite was said to be the invention of the famous 5th century BC Chinese philosophers Mozi (470-391 BC) and Lu Ban. By at least 549 AD paper kites were being flown, as it was recorded in that year that a paper kite was used to carry a message for a rescue mission.
It is almost certain that the first kites flown were in the Orient or East Indian Islands where large leaves grow. As late as the year AD1900 the villagers of Mutun on the island of Sumatra were using the dry leaves of the moon orchid to fly their fishing lines out into the deeper water of the bay to catch bigger gar. They strengthened the leaf with thin twigs and flew it on a three legged bridle in a similar fashion to the Korean kite. Korea borders China on its northern boundary.
Interestingly the Korean kite is rectangular, and the left hand simplified Chinese character for ''kite'' is similar to the Korean kite as seen from the flyer. It even shows the X spars and outline.

===Scientific Advances=== 


In 1749, Scottish scientist Alexander Wilson used several kites, attached in a train, i.e., one above the other, to measure and compare air temperature at different altitudes.


In 1826 George Pocock invented a kite drawn carriage, and together with two of his friends in similar carriages travelled "toll-free" 113 miles between Bristol and Marlborough, reaching speeds in excess of 20 MPH.


The Wright Brothers experimented with kites and contributed to development of the airplane.


[[w:Samual Cody|Samual Cody]] (born Samual Cowdery in Iowa) experimented with man lifting kites and in 1905 flew a glider. During the 1914-1918 he designed man lifting observation kites for the British army.


In the summer of 1997, researchers launched parafoil kites into the night-time sky. Radio-microphones were suspended beneath the kites at three different locations, each separated by 300 meters. This enabled the scientists to simultaneously eavesdrop at different altitudes. These studies have enabled scientists to gain new information into the world of bats.


Kites equipped with airborne cameras can be used to map archaeological sites or to inexpensively monitor areas where erosion, sedimentation, deforestation, or construction are rapidly changing the landscape.

===Ben Franklin's Kite=== 
In June 1752, in what is the most famous of kite experiments, the American inventor and statesman Benjamin Franklin, with the aid of his son, lofted a flat kite fitted with a pointed wire and silk sail on a hemp line during a thunderstorm. Somehow both father and son avoided electrocution as a metal key attached to the flying line became electrified. Franklin proved that lightning was the natural phenomenon called electricity, not the wrath of the gods. One immediate and practical outcome of the experiment was Franklin's invention of the lightning rod.


On October 19 in a letter to England explaining directions for repeating the experiment, Franklin wrote:


:''"When rain has wet the kite twine so that it can conduct the electric fire freely, you will find it streams out plentifully from the key at the approach of your knuckle, and with this key a phial, or Leiden jar, maybe charged: and from electric fire thus obtained spirits may be kindled, and all other electric experiments [may be] performed which are usually done by the help of a rubber glass globe or tube; and therefore the sameness of the electrical matter with that of lightening completely demonstrated."''


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Kites are used today for the following:
# Recreation - flying kites is fun!
# Predicting weather (carrying aloft meteorological instruments).
# Spaceflight (during the recovery of space vehicles)
# Pulling ships at sea
# Kite surfing and skateboarding


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The kites get a lift from the wind in the sky. The same current of air keeps them in flight up in the sky. The higher the kite gets the stronger the current usually gets and the longer your kite will stay up in the air. Flying Kites is something that people enjoy all over the world!
Air has weight. When a current of air hits an obstruction this weight is known as force. A kite, at the correct angle to the airstream, has this force translated into lift and drag. This angle is about 10 degrees and is the angle at which an airplane wing is most efficient.


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The center rod, or other rods that run lengthwise down a kite. May also be called a longeron. Sled kites and Conyne deltas have more than one.
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The spars are the rods that run from side to side. They usually intersect the spine at 90 degrees.
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The vent re-directs the airflow over the sail and may help to lift or stabilize the direction of the kite.
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The bowstring is tied from each end of a spar, making the spar bow-shaped, and gives the kite its dihedral
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Or sail; the cloth or lifting part of a kite.
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The frame makes the shape of the kite
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The tail is a length of material such as cotton, nylon or plastic which is attached to the kite for visual effect or to cause drag (on a single line kite) that helps with directional stability.
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The keel is a triangular piece of cloth used in lieu of or as well as a bridle. It helps with directional stability just like the keel of a boat.
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Or Tether What a person holds on to, to control the kite. The link between the kite and the ground.
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Lines that form the junction between kite and flying line. The bridle transmits the commands of the pilot to the kite. The bridle may also be the means of giving shape to the kite, in the case of soft kites.
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The reel contains, and is used to let out or retrieve, the flying line.
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Dihedral is the angle formed by the lateral extremities of the kite to the horizontal; and stabilizes the line of flight. Alternatively, a bend or curve in the kite that helps keep the kite stable


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* Lack of wind.
* Too strong a wind.
* Trees or other obstacles causing turbulence.
* Essential parts of the kite or line breaking (e.g., too powerful a wind can break spars or the kite string).


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The usual causes of a kite looping are:
# Not enough di-hedral.
# Poorly bridled.
# Poorly balanced.
# Too much wind.
If the kite starts to misbehave when already aloft the problem is most likely to be too much wind. Release tension on the line and try to pull the kite
diagonally out of the ''wind-window'' and closer to you. The closer you have it, the more control of it you will have too. Most importantly you must keep the kite under your control.


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A kite's tail is used to add stability to the kite and keep it facing into the wind. If there is enough di-hedral this will then prevent the kite from looping. The length of a tail should be from six to nine times the length of the kite body. Some put them on the kite so that when in the air it will wave along the wind - for decoration.


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# Never fly a kite when it's raining and lightning - lightning can kill or cause serious burns.
# Do not fly a kite near roads, or cars - distracting a car driver is dangerous, you could cause an accident.
# Do not fly near power lines - you could be killed by an electric shock.
# Do not fly near people or animals - the spine is an arrow traveling at up to 90 MPH.
# Keep away from buildings and trees - trees eat kites!
# Do not fly within 3 kilometres (two miles) of an active airport or aerodrome. See your local aviation authority for details.


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Winding a kite line onto a straight stick without getting a large number of twists and knots onto the line is not easy, and care must be taken. First of all get a piece of straight stick about {{units|15-20 cm|six to eight inches}} long. ''Tightly'' fasten the end of your kite line securely to the center of the stick using two half hitches so that the line can not slide round the stick; then wind several turns tightly onto the center over your knot. Now wind the remainder of your kite line onto the stick using a figure of eight motion; looping your line over each end in turn, and letting it lie neatly close to the center turns; whilst doing this gradually rotate the stick so that the line does not bunch up in one place. The figure of eight motion is imperative as it puts a reverse twist on at each turn. If you do this carefully; all that you have to do to let line out is to hold the center of the stick/ball of line and let the line off each end of the stick in turn. A word of caution – hold fast to the 'winder'. If the tug of the kite pulls it out of your hand, you may find yourself running down-wind chasing a bouncing stick.


My own personal preference for a single line is to use a 'reel' but again the line must be put onto the reel by rotating the reel and <u>not</u> by holding the reel still; whilst looping the line over the periphery. The latter action puts a twist into the line with each turn, and with cheap line can undo the manufacturer's spinning.


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{{:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Knot/Fisherman's_bend}}
Note:- This is a quick and easy knot with which to fasten two ends of line. Unfortunately the weakest part is now the knot which is approximately 45 percent of the line strength. A better knot which gives a finished strength of approximately 60 percent of the line strength is the 'riggers bend' or 'hunters bend' [http://www.scoutingsources.org.uk/downloads/knots_hunters_bend.pdf]


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Here are several links to making different types of kites. Go have fun!


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The sled kite was invented and patented by the American, William Allison in the 1950s. This kite helped pave the way for a class of kites known as "semi-rigid."


* http://hilaroad.com/camp/projects/Kite/kite.html


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Note: There is no such thing a "stable, flying, flat kite." The nearest thing to this is probably the "Indian fighter kite" as it is flat until on the wind. It is a single line kite and is allowed to rotate and float down wind, until it is pointing in the desired direction. At this time the line is pulled tight and the bridle pulls the spine forward into the wind and the kite then assumes its dihedral, stops rotating and leaps forward under the pilot's control. The profile of this kite is almost square while the two-stick frame lies on a flat plane, with the flexible cross spar (complete with both ends tapered) is bent backwards towards the tail end. Traditionally, the covering of this kite is tissue paper but more recently for the western market is made with mylar or similar thin plastic.


Another kite which qualifies for the term "flat" is the ''Delta kite'', made with, or without a spine. It depends for its stability on the pull of the line on its bridle shaped keel to deform the sail and give it its dihedral. We do not know when it was invented, but it is a possible contender for Benjamin Franklin's flat kite. Its one fault is that it has a tendency to fly directly over the head of the pilot, and beyond. This fault is cured by the addition of a tail or a drogue.


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Diamond kites (see Eddy kites, but distinguish). Diamonds types appear from mini to very large, from low-cost beginner utility to high quality state-of-the art large target control diamonds.


The classic ''Diamond'' is also a flat kite until on the wind, but here the dihedral is forced onto the cross spar by the air flow. The cross spar lies at ninety degrees to the spine, and is spaced between one fifth and a quarter of the distance from the nose. The addition of a tail (of from six to nine times the body length) compels the kite to face into the wind.
* http://www.skratch-pad.com/kites/make.html


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See the earlier note under "Flat kites" as the Delta wing is flat until on the wind. As with most kites, the more accurately one half of the flying surface reflects the other, the easier it is to get it to fly true. The Delta is named after the Greek letter which it resembles in shape, if constructed without a spine. If a spine is added the profile can be altered to achieve the shape designer wishes.


By adding yet another spine and another keel, plus a strip of material between the kite is now called ''Delta Conyne.''
* External Site to make Delta Conyne Wing Kite - http://www.kitemonger.com/kiteplan/sbd/index.html


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The Malay kite is a model of tailless kite. First introduced to the West in a New York newspaper article from October 1894, the Malay kite was used for recreation for centuries before this in parts of the Far East. The article detailed how a university professor ("Clayton") had erected a series of kites and bound them all together to one kite. These kites had no tail, were bowed and diamond shaped, and were referred to by the article writer as "Malay kites". However, the existence of a Malay-like design may have already been heard of in the United States sometime before the publishing of the article; in the last edition of the American Boy's Handy Book, another tailless kite is described (there referred to as a "Holland" kite). The description of this kite, which was to be included as a chapter in the book, was sent in to the author sometime around 1882, eleven years before the Malay kite was mentioned in the newspaper. Note:- to make the 'Malay' or 'Eddy' kite fly "tail less" dihedral is applied to the kite by fitting a bowline to the cross spar in like manner to that used on the Eddo, Korean, and Rocacoo. The pre-application of bow onto the cross spar is the main difference between the classic diamond and the Eddy. The other difference is that the bow enables the Eddy to fly without a tail, which the classic 'Diamond' requires.
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Image:PicEddyKite.jpg
Image:US646375.png
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A box kite is a high-performance kite, noted for developing relatively high lift. The typical design has four parallel struts. The box is made rigid with diagonal crossed struts. There are two sails, or ribbons, whose width is about a quarter to one third of the length of the box. The ribbons wrap around the ends of the box, leaving the ends and middle of the kite open. In flight, one strut is the bottom, and the bridle is tied between the top and bottom of this strut. The dihedrals of the sails help stability. Note:- The central gap between the sails is essential, as the air flow passing around both the inside and outside of the rear 'ribbon' has a stabalising effect and seems to give the kite more 'lift' or elevation.
<gallery>
Image:Boxkite.svg|A Box Kite
Image:Box Kite (PSF).jpg|Box Kite
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* This one's a bit involved - http://www.howtomakeandflykites.com/kites-to-make/the-box-kite.html


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A tetrahedral kite is a multi-celled rigid box kite composed of tetrahedrally shaped cells. The cells are usually arranged in such a way that the entire kite is also a regular tetrahedron. The kite can be described as a compound dihedral kite as well.


This kite was created by Alexander Graham Bell. It came about from his experiments with Hargrave's Box Kites and his attempts to build a kite that was big enough to carry both a man and a motor. Bell wrote about his discovery of this concept in the National Geographic June 1903 issue; the article was titled "Tetrahedral Principle in Kite Structure".


This style kite, while not an easy kite to make compared to the simple cross kite, is a very stable kite and is easy to fly. It flies well in moderate to heavy winds if it is properly set up.
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Image:Tetrahedron.gif|Tetahedron
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* http://www.instructables.com/id/Tetrahedral-Kite/
* http://www.cit.gu.edu.au/~anthony/kites/tetra/straw_plan/


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==References== 
[[Category:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]
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