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AY Honors/Carpentry/Answer Key

2025-05-07T20:07:32Z

MrJoe:

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<gallery>
Image:Bandsaw at Lowes.jpg|<center>Bandsaw</center>
Image:Belt_sander_bosch.jpg|<center>Belt Sander</center>
Image:Decoupeerzaag.jpg|<center>Jig Saw</center>
Image:Miter saw.jpg|<center>Miter Saw</center>
Image:Radial_arm_saw_osha.jpg|<center>Radial Arm Saw</center>
Image:Wood_router_jmc_2005_03_12.jpg|<center>Router</center>
Image:Shaper_osha.jpg|<center>Shaper</center>
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A '''band saw''' is a saw that can be used for woodworking, metal working, and a variety of other materials. It gets its name from its blade, consisting of a narrow band of toothed metal. This band rides on two large wheels stacked vertically with a space between them. Band saws are particularly useful for cutting irregular shapes. The radius of a curve that can be cut on a particular saw is determined by the width of the band.


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A belt sander is a machine used to quickly sand down wood and other materials for finishing purposes. It consists of a motor that turns a pair of drums on which a seamless loop of sandpaper is mounted. Belt sanders can be either hand-held, where the sander is moved over the material, or stationary (fixed), where the material is moved to the sanding belt. Stationary belt sanders are often combined with a disc sander.


Belt sanders can have a very aggressive action on wood and are normally used only for the beginning stages of the sanding process, or used to rapidly remove material.
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A jigsaw (also called saber saw or saber saw) is a type of saw used for cutting arbitrary curves, such as stenciled designs or other custom shapes, into a piece of wood or similar material. It is usually used in a more artistic fashion than other saws, which only cut in straight lines and exist mainly to chop pieces of wood to length for building structure. The first jigsaw puzzles were made using this kind of saw.


Traditional jigsaws are hand saws, consisting of a handle attached to a small, thin blade. More modern jigsaws are power tools, made up of a motor and a reciprocating saw blade.


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Today, a miter saw (also called a chop saw or drop saw) usually refers to a power tool used to make a quick, accurate crosscut in a workpiece. It is most frequently used to cut wood, although some plastics and light metals can also be cut with the tool. Common uses include framing operations and the cutting molding. Most miter saws are relatively small and portable, with common blade sizes ranging from eight to 12 inches.


The miter saw makes cuts by pulling a spinning circular saw blade down onto a workpiece in a short, controlled motion. The workpiece is typically held against a fence, which provides a precise cutting angle between the blade and the longest workpiece edge. In standard position, this angle is fixed at 90°.


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A radial arm saw is a machine intended for cutting materials to length. It is primarily a woodworking machine, although it is sometimes used for cutting metals, such as angle iron or aluminum extrusions. Before the advent of the radial arm saw, table saws and hand saws were most commonly used for crosscutting lumber. Table saws are ideal for ripping stock, but it is awkward to push a long piece of stock widthwise through a table saw blade. When a radial arm saw is used, the stock remains stationary on the saw's table and the blade is pulled through the stock.

Radial arm saws have been largely replaced by miter saws due to some inherent safety issues. When used to cross cut boards, the blade of the radial arm saw tends to pull itself towards the user this needs to be accounted for when using the saw. If the radial arm saw is used to rip material the material is pinched between the blade and the table and can be grabbed by the blade and thrown. For this reason radial arm saws should only be used for cross cutting, and given the option a miter saw should be used instead.


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A router is a woodworking tool used to route out (hollow out) an area in the face of a piece of wood. It was a tool particularly used by pattern makers and consisted of a broad-based wooden hand plane with a narrow blade projecting well beyond its base plate. Since about 1960, it has been replaced by the modern spindle router, which was designed for the same work. Further refinement has produced the even more recent plunging spindle router, which is even better adapted for many types of work.


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A wood shaper is a stationary woodworking machine in which a spindle spins at moderately high speeds. Specially shaped bits are mounted on the spindle. As the workpiece is fed into the machine, the bit cuts a profile into it. On some shapers, router bits can also be used using a special mounting adapter.


Wood shapers do essentially the same job as the router table, with the main difference being that a wood shaper is a stationary machine designed for larger volume work while a router table is a hand tool for lighter duty work. Routers can also be mounted on a router table, and used as a stationary tool. However, routers run at considerably higher speeds than shapers, and the use of large bits can be dangerous. Also, shapers can be used to cut much larger profiles than routers and custom-made shaper bits can be readily ordered or fabricated.


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<gallery>
Image:Block_plane.jpg|Block Plane
Image:Circ_saw.jpg|Circular Saw
Image:Framing_square.jpg|Framing Square
Image:Hammer2.jpg|Hammer
Image:Crosscut_saw.JPG|Hand saw
Image:Water_level_1.jpg|Level
Image:Tape_measure.jpg|Tape Measure
Image:Chasse_clou.png|Nail Set
Image:Plumb_bob.jpg|Plumb Bob
Image:Chisel_wood_24mm.jpg|Wood Chisel
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A block plane is designed to cut end grain and is typically small enough to be used with one hand. To use it, securely clamp the piece to be planed to a solid object (ideally, a work bench). Then pass the plane's sole across the endgrain you are trying to smooth. The blade can be adjusted, and it is best to set it such that the blade barely protrudes out of the bottom of the plane. Adjust it so that it takes very thin shavings. If no wood is removed, let the blade out a little more.


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'''Note: Participants must be at least 16 years old to use power tools'''
It is vitally important that you describe the dangers involved in using a circular saw before you turn your Pathfinders loose on one. It is very easy to cut off a finger or cause an even more serious injury with one of these. If your Pathfinders are a little scared (not petrified) of this tool, that's a good thing. One should ''never'' get too comfortable with dangerous equipment.


Make sure the lumber is well supported before attempting to cut it, and make sure that you closely supervise the use of this tool. The operator should also wear eye protection.


Adjust the blade so that the depth of cut just exceeds the thickness of the board you wish to cut. You can run the blade right over the top of a saw horse this way. This will cut a small groove in the sawhorse, but that's an acceptable use of the tool.


If cutting plywood, you can clamp a piece of lumber along the line so that the shoe of the saw can rest against it and use it as a guide. Make sure the saw can clear the clamps on ''both'' ends of the cut though. Also make sure that the operator doesn't have to overreach to complete the cut and that all hands, feet, limbs, small children, and pets are clear of the area.


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A framing square is used to make sure that an angle is 90°. Place the corner of the square next to the angle you wish to check, and adjust the angle until it lines up with the square. To check that the square itself is square, mark a straight line and place one edge of the square along this line. Then mark another line along the other edge of the square, intersecting the first line near the center of its length. Finally flip the square and see if the other side of the first line and the second line form also a 90° angle.


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Grip the hammer near the end of the handle opposite the hammer's head. Many people grip the handle near the hammer's head, but this is incorrect. When driving a nail, the hammer must be maneuvered so that its flat face strikes the nail's head at a right angle to the nail's axis, with the head moving parallel to that axis. Failure to achieve either condition will result in a sideways force on the nail's head, that may bend it. Also, one should relax the muscles of the hand and arm momentarily when the hammer strikes.


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Handsaws are tools used for cutting wood. Handsaws come in many varieties, including the crosscut saw, rip saw, coping saw, tenon saw, backsaw, and dovetail saw. Each has its own special use. A crosscut saw is used for cutting across the grain of a piece of lumber. A rip saw is used for cutting along the grain. A coping saw is used for making curved cuts. A tenon saw is used for cutting tenons and other fine work. A backsaw is commonly used with a miter box and for small cutting jobs. A dovetail saw is used for cutting dovetail joints.


To use a crosscut or a rip saw, place the board on a supported surface at thigh-height (between the knee and hips). Grip the saw with the right hand (assuming right-handedness) and use the left knee to hold the board in place. Align the right shoulder, arm, and hand so that they are in line with the cut to be made. Begin with light strokes, noting that the saw cuts on the push stroke. As the cut progresses, keep an eye on the line, pulling the blade toward it. If this is to be a "finished" cut, you can score a "V" along the line first with a carton knife, and let the blade ride in the V groove. Score another line along the bottom of the board to prevent tear-out.


Maintain your saws by keeping them dry and sharp. Many tools (including saws) can be kept in great condition by wiping them down with a cloth and oil (or WD40) after each use.


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A level is a tool designed to indicate whether a surface is level or plumb. A level surface has no tilt to it, so that liquid would pool up on the surface rather than run off. A plumb surface is straight up and down. Ideally, you want your floors to be level and your walls to be plumb.


Most levels have two bubbles on them - one for checking levelness, and the other for checking plumbness. To use the level, lay its edge on the surface you wish the check. Embedded in the middle of the level is a small window where the bubble and the tube is mounted. Two rings designate where the bubble would be if the surface were level (or plumb). If the bubble is not centered between these two rings, the surface is not level. Lift one edge of the level off the surface to see how far you have to move it in order to move the bubble between the lines. This will give you an indicator of how much correction is required to make the surface level. Adjust and remeasure, repeating until the surface is level.


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[[image:Ruler_sixteenths.png|left|80px]]
A measuring tape is more commonly known as a "tape measure." It is used for measuring the length of an item. There is a metal tape curled into a spiral inside the enclosure, and attached to a spring. When the tape is pulled out of the enclosure, the spiral unwinds and the spring is tensed. When the tape is released, the spring draws it back into the enclosure. A hook on the end of the tape prevents it from being completely drawn inside, and this hook can also be used for hooking the end of the tape to the edge of a board. The tape itself is marked with inches, and these can be read off to measure a board or to mark a line for a cut. Between each inch mark are smaller tick marks. The largest of these is halfway between each inch marking, and indicates the half-inch measure. Slightly smaller tick marks lie between the half-inch mark and the inch marks, and these mark off the quarter-inch increments. Between each of the quarter inch marks are smaller marks to indicate eighths. Some tapes also mark off sixteenths (sometimes only for the first several inches). See the illustration to see how to read the markings.


Most tape measures also show 1 foot increments (often with a black square) as well as showing 16-inch increments (often with a red square). The 16-inch increments are useful because studs, joists, and rafters are commonly 16 inches apart.


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A nail set is used in finish carpentry to drive a nail below the surface of a board. First the nail is driven with a hammer until it is very near the surface of the board. Then the tip of the nail set is placed on the nail head. Finish nails have a small divot in the head to accept the nail set. The head of the nail set is then struck with the hammer until the nail is driven below (or flush with) the surface of the board.


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A plumb bob is a weight on the end of a string. The weight will hang straight down and is used as a reference for a perfectly vertical line. It can be used in some places where a level cannot - such as in a place where there is no vertical surface to place the level against. For example, a carpenter may wish to find a place on the floor just below a point on a ceiling joist so he can construct an interior non-weight bearing wall there and then be able to tie it into the ceiling joist. In this case, the wall does not yet exist, so there is nothing to place a level against to measure for plumbness.


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Wood chisels are most commonly used in carpentry for installing recessed hinges. To do this, the hinge is laid on the board to which it will be attached, and then it is traced. The hinge is then removed, and a sharp knife is used to score around the hinge's outline. A chisel is then used to remove wood to a depth equal to the hinge's thickness.


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;Penny: The '''penny''' size is written with a number and the abbreviation d for penny (e.g. - 10d). D is an abbreviation for denarius, a Roman coin similar to a penny; this was the abbreviation for a penny in the UK before decimaliation. A smaller number indicates a shorter nail and a larger number indicates a longer nail. Nails under 1-1/4 in., often called brads, are sold mostly in small packages with only a length designation (e.g. 1/2" (12 mm), 1-1/8" (28 mm), etc.).


{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="4"
|-
|6d
| 2" (~50 mm)
|-
| 8d
| 2-1/2" (~65 mm)
|-
| 10d
| 3" (~75 mm)
|-
| 12d
| 3-1/4" (~80 mm)
|-
| 16d
| 3-1/2" (~90 mm)
|-
| 20d
| 4" (~100 mm)
|}


;Finish nail: A '''finish nail''' is used for interior woodworking. Size varies, but the head of the nail is only slightly larger than the nail's shaft. A finish nail is ''set'' by driving its head below the surface of the wood using a ''nail set''. The head can then be covered with putty (for a natural finish) or with caulk (for a painted finish). If done well, this makes the nail effectively invisible.


;Brad: '''Brad''' nails are small and often made of brass. They are often used to hold small pieces of trim in place. Rather than attempting to hide the nail, brads sometimes have decorative heads, so that the nail head becomes part of the décor.


;Roofing nail: A '''roofing nail''' is short with a large, flat head. It is also coated with zinc to prevent rusting. Roofing nails are used for attaching shingles to a roof.


;Screw nail: A '''screw nail''' has a twisted shank for extra holding power.


;Sinker: A '''Sinker''' nail's head is tapered on the underside, so that the nail can be driven flush with the surface of the board. These are used in general construction.


;Common: A '''Common''' nail has a flat head and is used for general construction, carpentry, and framing.


;Galvanized: A '''Galvanized''' nail is a nail that has been coated with zinc to inhibit corrosion. Galvanized nails are often used in work that will be exposed to weather.


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This requirement is just ''begging'' you to build a shed, though other options are certainly possible as well such as a cabin or garage. Many Pathfinders go on mission trips to help build churches or schools, and if your group is planning to do this, you have the perfect opportunity to earn this honor.


In the United States (and in most developed countries) the local government will require a building permit for a shed, even one as small as this. Check with the local government and review the building codes before starting this project. They will usually want a drawing showing what you plan to build before issuing a permit.


If building a small shed, you may be able to use a "floating" foundation - that is special concrete blocks in the shape of a trapezoid (wider at the base than on top). The blocks sit on the ground, and beams are placed in notches on top of these. The floor joists and headers (which join to the end of the joists) are built on top of the beams. Once the floor is built, the walls can be framed (including openings for the doors and windows). At this point, the walls can be sheathed and the roof can be framed, sheathed, and shingled as well. Then the doors and windows are installed, the siding is put on, and the finish carpentry begins on the inside (though this step can be skipped on a shed).


Be sure that your Pathfinders each use all the tools called out in requirement 2. It might be a good idea to make a checklist for each Pathfinder, and have them compare their activities to it as the day progresses to be sure they use all the tools required.


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[[Image:Carpentry_construction_details.png|thumb|500px|right|1:cap plate, 2:top plate, 3:cripple stud, 4:header, 5:stud, 6:shoe plate, 7:jack stud, 8:subfloor, 9:joist.]]
 
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A floor joist is a board that supports the floor. Depending on how large an area the floor covers, and how far the joists span, the floor joist can be anywhere from a 2x6 to a 2x12, or even bigger. Floor joists are installed edgewise, and they are attached to headers which attach to the foundation of the building.


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The sub floor is usually made from plywood, particle board, or oriented strand board (OSB), and is nailed (or screwed) to the floor joists. The finished floor (carpeting, hardwood floor, laminate floor, linoleum, vinyl, tile, etc.) is then laid atop the sub floor.


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More commonly known as a bottom plate or a sole plate, a shoe plate is the bottom board in a framed wall. Studs are nailed into this board, and it is nailed to the floor. Some local building codes require that the shoe plate be made of pressure treated lumber to resist rot if water pools on the floor (for whatever reason).


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The top plate is the board running along the top of a framed wall. Like the shoe plate, the studs are nailed to this board, and it is attached to the ceiling.


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For added strength, two top plates are used, most commonly on a weight-bearing wall. The upper top plate is called the cap plate.


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A ''conventional roof'' is made from rafters which are beams that run from the roof's ridge to the ceiling joists. A ''truss'' is an engineered, pre-built structure consisting of triangles. Trusses are lighter, stronger, and cheaper than rafters, but they form a web of lumber inside the roof rendering the attic space unusable. Rafters are positioned in line with the studs in a wall and are fastened to both the top plate and the ceiling joists. A pair of rafters (joined to the opposite sides of the ridge board) are sometimes tied together with a collar beam which is a horizontal member.


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Felt roofing material is not like the felt sets used in the children's Sabbath School classes. Rather, "felt roofing" is just another name for tar paper. Before installing the felt roofing, you should first nail a drip strip to the edges of the roof. Then the felt paper is rolled out over the entire horizontal length of the roof (not top to bottom!) and stapled onto the sheathing. If the felt is not wide enough to cover the roof from the eaves to the peak, you will need another layer. The first layer should be along the eaves, and subsequent layers should overlap previous ones by a couple of inches. If the roof has a ridge vent, do '''not''' cover it. The purpose if a ridge vent is to allow heat to escape from the attic. Covering it with tar paper defeats this feature completely. The roof is now ready to shingle.


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Shingles are laid on top of the felt roofing, starting with the bottom row. Use roofing nails to attach asphalt shingles directly to the felt roofing. The next row of shingles should be offset from the first so that the boundary between two shingles and the notches that make up the tabs in one shingle are completely covered by the tab of another - not by another boundary or by a notch. The shingles should overlap such that only the tabs show, and not the solid portion on the upper part of the shingle. It helps tremendously to mark parallel lines on the tar paper with a chalk line so that the shingles do not creep uphill. You want the line to be level.


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A window opening must have a weight-bearing header. The header is a pair of 2x4's which are turned on their edges and nailed to a stud. A pair of studs (called ''jack studs'') run from the bottom of the header to the floor to help support the weight. Short studs (called ''cripple studs'' then run from the header to the top plate. The cripple studs supply a support for the wall's sheeting.


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As with windows, doors also require a weight-bearing header. It is built exactly the same way a window opening is made.
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Fascia is a "finish" board that covers the ends of the rafters.


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The purpose of siding is to keep water out of the building. Vinyl siding is, in general, easier to work with than aluminum siding, but there are other options too, including asphalt, weather boards, and plain old plywood with felt paper beneath and with furring strips covering the joints.


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Participants must be 16 years old or older to use power tools.


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==References== 
*Much of the material in this section was taken from the Wikipedia articles on the various tools presented here.
*[http://www.redbrand.com/products/nail/index.asp Redbrand.com] - description of various nails.
*[http://www.hammerzone.com/archives/roof/maintenance/reshingle/prep/dry.htm Hammerzone.com] - roofing.
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User talk:Jomegat

2014-03-12T04:43:09Z

MrJoe: /* Images for the radio electronics honor */

<div style="text-align: center" class="usermessage">I watch talk pages where I have recently left messages. Please reply in the same section to make discussion easier to follow. 
If you leave a message on this page, I'll reply to it here.</div>

Can you change http://www.investitureachievement.org/wiki/index.php/Adventist_Youth_Honors_Answer_Book/Sharks to http://www.investitureachievement.org/wiki/index.php/Adventist_Youth_Honors_Answer_Book/'''Nature/'''Sharks [[User:JadeDragon|JadeDragon]] 02:36, 17 March 2013 (EDT)
:Hi, JadeDragon. I did that on purpose. I intend over the course of the next couple of months to move all the honors out from under their categories and place them directly under the root level. The reasons for this are that it will make it a lot easier to link between honors if we remove that level of hierarchy, and it will not really mess anything up. Another reason is that the NAD Honors Taskforce approved a new honor last week but did not yet decided on which category it will be assigned. It will probably go into a new category named "Heritage," and there are several other honors that will be moved there with it. We expect there will also be a Heritage Master Award forthcoming. --[[User:Jomegat|Jomegat]] 09:14, 17 March 2013 (EDT)
::However - that's a lot of work, so I want to stew on it for a little while before I act. --[[User:Jomegat|Jomegat]] 09:17, 17 March 2013 (EDT)
:::Great, thanks for the insight. Agreed - much easier to interlink, but lots of work to change all the links. If you decide to proceed let me know, and how to do it. I'm happy to divide the categories up between us and tackle the job.[[User:JadeDragon|JadeDragon]] 21:12, 20 March 2013 (EDT)
::::I think I'm going to want to stew on it longer. It would be an incredible amount of work, and I'm not sure that it would even lend itself to automation. The honors themselves wouldn't be that hard, but some honors have submodules that have relative links. I think it might be best to move Sharks into the Nature category for now (and maybe forever). --[[User:Jomegat|Jomegat]] 21:19, 20 March 2013 (EDT)

:::::I see you copied me a bit on the honors listing :D I just felt it took up less space visually, and less scrolling to put the honor patches :) [[User:Bluescifiworm|Bluescifiworm]] 00:35, 6 June 2013 (EDT)
::::::Yup. I wasn't going to list mine at all, but liked the way you had done it so much I changed my mind. --[[User:Jomegat|Jomegat]] 06:28, 6 June 2013 (EDT)

== Images for the radio electronics honor ==

I noticed that most of the images in the radio electronics honor are missing, presumably due to the transfer to the current wiki. Do you know if they are still available?
:Yes, they are still available, and your guess is correct. This was one of the first honors I tried to answer at Wikibooks, so not knowing better, I uploaded the images to Wikibooks instead of to Wikimedia Commons. I will upload them to our wiki in a few minutes.
:Incidentally, I designed (and tested) the circuits in these missing images, so if you have questions, feel free to ask. Thanks for pointing out that these were missing! --[[User:Jomegat|Jomegat]] 18:51, 10 March 2014 (EDT)
:: Thanks. It might be good to add some more resources either to requirement 8 or to a new "resources" section at the end. Places like Adafruit.com and Sparkfun.com have kits and tutorials available. In addition eBay can be a great place to order components for much cheaper than the normal sources like digikey, mouser, etc...
:: I would like to put together one or more new honors dealing with more modern electronics like microcontrolers and stuff. there are so many great things that can be done easily now that weren't available to most people 20+ years ago.--[[Special:Contributions/206.210.161.13|206.210.161.13]] 15:52, 11 March 2014 (EDT)

::: Those are good ideas. I had been toying with the concept of a few honors like that, but hadn't considered an honor based around products such as the RasPi, Arduino, or Adafruit (et al). I had been thinking more along the lines of Digital Electronics, which would deal with logic gates. I do get to sit in on the NAD Honors Task Force (though I couldn't make it this year). I'll see if I can dig up the guidelines for submitting new honors and post them here.

:::As for modifying the answers in requirement 8 or adding a resources section I say... go for it. This is a Wiki, and you have edit privileges already. Here are a couple of honors I had been thinking of:
*Digital Electronics
*Microcontrollers (well... that's your idea, but I like having one list)
*Programming
*Soldering (not sure that would be a whole honor, but... maybe it could be. It could also be a requirement in one).

:::There have been noises on writing a Robotics honor too. The one I saw was going to require Lego Mindstorms, which I think would be a mistake. Having requirements that can be met with Mindstorms is OK, but requiring a particular brand... not cool, and definitely prone to built-in obsolescence. --[[User:Jomegat|Jomegat]] 16:43, 11 March 2014 (EDT)

:::: The problem I was having was coming up with a name for the honor. Digital Electronics was one I thought about but I wasn't sure about it since I thought microcontrollers might be beyond just digital electronics, but it was the best one I had thought of. Maybe the basic honor could deal with the simple components: logic gates, 555s, etc... and an advanced honor could deal with microcontrollers, or maybe it should be the other way around, it might be simpler to do stuff with a Pic, Stamp, or Arduino and then the advanced honor could deal with the components. The obsolescence issue is a huge one, maybe "radio electronics" should be renamed.:)
:::: Soldering is one of the requirements for the radio electronics honor. Maybe an advanced honor could be added that included more soldering, surface mount maybe, plus other things like creating PCBs.
:::: I always thought it would be fun to have a programming honor that could be done in any language, and have language pins like the stars and diamonds, that could be applied to the patch for different languages.
:::: There is a proposed robotics honor requirement on the [http://www.adventistroboticsleague.net/ Adventist Robotics League] website, but it needs some work. I also got some requirements for several proposed honors from Mark, but they all needed work in my opinion. I agree that specifying the mindstorms is an issue, though it should definitely be named as an example in the honor answers.
:::: I haven't updated anything yet because I haven't had time, and I hadn't gotten around to creating an account on this wiki yet. Anyway I have an account now, so I'll try to make some updates. One question I did have about updates, is would it be possible for you to recreate the symbols and schematics in a format that doesn't have a black background? They are a bit harder to read that way when you try to print them. I'm not sure what you created them with so I don't know how hard it would be to recreate them.--[[User:MrJoe|MrJoe]] 00:43, 12 March 2014 (EDT)

AY Honors/Amphibians/Answer Key

2009-02-19T19:09:36Z

MrJoe: Add californiaherps.com reference.

{{honor_header|1|1945|Nature|General Conference}}
{{AY Master|Naturalist|Options}}
{{AY Master|Zoology|Options}}

==1. What are the characteristics of amphibians?==
Amphibians live half of their lives in water and half on land. They are cold-blooded vertebrates. Amphibians are able to breathe through their skin, making them very sensitive to anything they come in contact with, including human hands. When observing amphibians, one should never touch them. Amphibians have toes rather than claws.

==2. Name the two main orders of amphibia and tell how to distinguish between them.==
;Order Anura (frogs and toads): Adult frogs and toads are characterized by long hind legs, a short body, webbed digits, protruding eyes and the absence of a tail. Most have a semi-aquatic lifestyle, but move easily on land by jumping or climbing. They typically lay their eggs in puddles, ponds or lakes; and their larvae, called tadpoles, have gills and develop in water.

;Order Caudata (newts and salamanders): Cuadata have slender bodies, short legs, and long tails. The moist skin of the amphibians fits them to habitats either near water or under some protection on moist ground, usually in a forest. Some species are aquatic throughout life, some take to the water intermittently, and some are entirely terrestrial as adults. Salamanders superficially resemble lizards, but are easily distinguished by their lack of scales. They are capable of regenerating lost limbs.

==3. Distinguish between toads and frogs.==
The use of the common names "frog" and "toad" has no taxonomic justification. From a taxonomic perspective, all members of the order Anura are frogs, but only members of the family Bufonidae are considered "true toads". The use of the term "frog" in common names usually refers to species that are aquatic or semi-aquatic with smooth or moist skins, and the term "toad" generally refers to species that tend to be terrestrial with dry, warty skin. An exception is the Fire-bellied toad (''Bombina bombina''): while its skin is slightly warty, it prefers a watery habitat.

==4. How do amphibians protect themselves?==
The first line of defense for amphibians is to not be seen by a potential predator. The small size and coloration of many species help in this regard, but sometimes, rather than blending in, frogs are very brightly colored. The coloration in this case serves as a warning, for these frogs are poisonous.

Many frogs contain mild toxins that make them distasteful to potential predators. For example, all toads have large poison glands—the parotid glands—located behind the eyes on the top of the head. Some frogs, such as some poison dart frogs, are especially toxic.

Salamanders have the ability to detach their tails at will. When a predator captures a salamander by the tail, the salamander detaches its tail and escapes. The tail ''regenerates'' or grows back.

==5. Make a list of amphibians that should be found in your locality. Identify five and tell where you found them. OR Collect pictures or sketch five different amphibians which you can identify and tell where they are found.==

{{TODO|Expand this section to include more species}}

{{Species id
| latin_name = Lithobates catesbeianus
| common_name = Bullfrog
| image = Bullfrog - natures pics.jpg
| range = The American Bull Frog is native to North America. They are found in the United States, Canada and Mexico, east of the Rocky Mountains, but have been introduced to many other localities throughout the world. In Europe and the western U.S., measures are often taken to control its spread because it competes with, and often drives out, native species.
|description = The bull frog is a large species that has many similarities to its 'sister species' of toad, and can grow to a length of 6 inches (15 cm) with a weight of up to 1.5 lb (750 g). Females are typically larger than males. They are generally varying shades of green or brown, with dark brown, dark green, or black blotching and a yellow or white underside. Bull frogs are carnivorous and will consume almost anything that fits into their mouth which they can overpower, including insects, small mammals, fish, snakes, and even other frogs. They tend to eat more dragonflies than flies. The adult frog can live up to 13 years.
}}

{{Species id
| latin_name = Bufo americanus
| common_name = American Toad
| image = Bufo americanusPCCA20060417-3352B.jpg
| range = The American toad is a common species of toad found throughout the eastern United States and Canada.
|description = The American toad is a medium sized toad usually found in the range from 2 to over 3 1/2 inches. The color and pattern is somewhat variable. The Eastern American toad has spots that contain only one to two warts. It also has enlarged warts on the tibia or lower leg below the knee. While the belly is usually spotted, it is generally more so on the forward half (in some rare individuals there may be few or no spots).
}}

{{Species id
| latin_name = Hyla versicolor
| common_name = Grey Tree Frog
| image = Bufo 6759.jpg
| range = Grey tree frogs inhabit a wide range, and can be found in most of the eastern half of the United States, as far west as central Texas. They also range into Canada in the provinces of Ontario and Manitoba, with an isolated population in New Brunswick.
| description = Grey tree frogs live primarily in trees, spending time in wooded areas, usually not far from a permanent water source. On rainy evenings they can often be found calling in or near shallow, temporary pools of water. They are nocturnal and insectivorous, consuming most any small arthropod they can catch. Mating occurs throughout the spring and summer months.
}}

{{Species id
| latin_name = Hyla crucifer
| common_name = Spring Peeper
| image = H crucifer USGS.jpg
| range = There are two subspecies of the spring peeper, the northern (P. c. crucifer) and the southern spring peeper (P. c. bartramiana). The northern is similar to the southern except for a strong dark marking on the southern frog's belly. The southern spring peeper is limited to northern Florida and southern Georgia, while the northern can be found all over the east of the USA and eastern Canada.
| description = The spring peeper is a small frog, attaining an adult size between 0.75 and 1.5 inches (up to 40mm) long. They have a dark cross on their backs roughly in the shape of an "X", though sometimes the marking may be indistinct. The color variations of the spring peeper are mostly tan, brown, olive green, or gray. Females are lighter-colored, while males are slightly smaller and usually have dark throats. Spring peepers are nocturnal frogs, so they are mostly heard but not seen. And they are especially easy to hear due to their extremely loud mating call which gives them the name "peeper".
}}

{{Species id
| latin_name = Lithobates sylvaticus
| common_name = Wood Frog
| image = Rana sylvatica.jpg
| range = Wood Frogs are found from northern Georgia and in isolated colonies in the central highlands in the eastern to central parts of Alabama, up through the northeastern United States, and all the way across Canada into Alaska. It is the most widely distributed frog in Alaska. They can be found from southeastern Alaska to north of the Brooks Range.
| description = Wood Frog is the common name given to Lithobates sylvaticus, previously Rana sylvatica. They are the only frogs found north of the Arctic Circle. In winter, as much as 35-45% of the frog's body may freeze, and turn to ice. Ice crystals form beneath the skin and become interspersed among the body's skeletal muscles. During the freeze the frog's breathing, blood flow, and heartbeat cease. Freezing is made possible by specialized proteins, glucose and perhaps accumulation of urea, which prevent intracellular freezing and dehydration. Wood Frogs primarily breed in ephemeral pools rather than permanent water bodies such as ponds or lakes. Adults emerge from hibernation in early spring and migrate to nearby pools. There, males chorus (a quacking sound) and mating occurs. Adult Wood Frogs spend summer months in moist woodlands, forested swamps, and bogs where they forage and maintain body moisture as surrounding environments dry out. Females' eggs are formed by late fall. By late fall or early winter, they leave forested swamps and travel to neighboring uplands to overwinter. Some may remain in moist areas to overwinter. They tend to hibernate in the upper organic layers of the soil, under leaf litter, and in close proximity to breeding pools.
}}

{{Species id
| latin_name = Rana
| common_name = Leopard Frog
| image = Green-leopard-frog-in-swamp.jpg
| range = Once abundant in North America and Canada, their population has declined in recent years because of pollution and deforestation. Leopard frogs are often used as environmental indicator species because of their heightened sensitivity to chemical pollutants found in the air and water.
| description = Leopard frogs, which are also called meadow frogs and grass frogs, are a collection of so-called true frog within the genus Rana. They are commonly used as dissection specimens in biology classrooms. Leopard frogs are recognized by their green or brown coloration with distinct light-edged dark spots across the back and white underside. They also have a characteristic line of raised glandular skin extending from each eye to the groin.
}}

{{Species id
| latin_name = Pseudacris regilla
| common_name =Pacific Chorus Frog
| image = Pseudacris regilla.png
| range = The Pacific Chorus Frog, formerly the Pacific Tree Frog (Hyla regilla) is a species of chorus frog native to the pacific coast of North America from Baja California in Mexico, through the states of California, Oregon, Washington (it is the Washington state frog), and into Canada and extreme southern Alaska. It ranges east into Nevada and Idaho.
| description = This is probably the most commonly heard and encountered frog in California and its call is often heard as a nighttime background sound in Hollywood movies. The Pacific tree frog can reach up to about 5 cm in length. The males are often smaller than the females. These frogs can have highly variable color on their bodies anywhere from gray, brown, tan or bright green and can even change between them. They are usually a pale or white color on their bellies. They have many variations of markings on their back and sides that are usually dark and spotty. The one identifiable mark is a dark stripe that goes over the eye from the nose to the shoulder. Their skin is covered in small bumps. They have long legs compared to their bodies and they tend to be slender. Their toes are long and are only very slightly webbed. On the end of each toe, there is a round sticky pad that is used for climbing and sticking to surfaces.
}}

{{Species id
| latin_name = Litoria caerulea
| common_name =Australian Green Tree Frog
| image = Caerulea3 crop.jpg
| range = The Australian Green Tree Frog, simply Green Tree Frog in Australia, White's Tree Frog, or Dumpy Tree Frog (Litoria caerulea) is a species of tree frog native to Australia and New Guinea, with introduced populations in New Zealand and the United States.
| description = The Green Tree Frog can grow up to 10 centimeters (4 inches) in length. Its color depends on the temperature and color of the environment, ranging from brown to green; the ventral surface is white. The frog occasionally has small, white, irregularly shaped spots on its back, up to five millimeters in diameter, which increase in number with age.
}}

{{Species id
| latin_name = Cryptobranchus alleganiensis
| common_name = Hellbender
| image = Cryptobranchus alleganiensis.jpg
| range = The range of the Eastern Hellbender (C. a. alleganiensis) in North America extends from southwestern and south central New York, west to southern Illinois, and south to extreme northeastern Mississippi and the northern parts of Alabama and Georgia. A disjunct population occurs in east-central Missouri. The Ozark Hellbender (C. a. bishopi) subspecies exists as a disjunct population in southeastern Missouri and adjacent northwest Arkansas. Hellbenders are considered endangered in Illinois, Indiana, Maryland, and Ohio and rare or of "special concern" in Georgia, New York, North Carolina and Virginia.
|description = The Hellbender is a large aquatic salamander native to North America whose habitat includes large, swiftly flowing streams with rocky bottoms. Common names include the "snot otter" and "devil dog." Hellbenders have a flat body and head, with small eyes. Like all salamanders, they have short legs and thin bodies. Their tails, however, are especially keeled to help propel them through water. They have four toes on their front legs and five on their back ones.
}}

{{Species id
| latin_name = Necturus maculosus
| common_name = Common Mudpuppy
| image = Necturus maculosus maculosus.jpg
| range = The Common Mudpuppy is a species of aquatic salamander found throughout the northeastern United States, and parts of Canada.
|description = Mudpuppies prefer shallow water with lots of places to hide, but have been found at depths of up to 90 feet. The mating season is late autumn however eggs are not laid until late spring when 50 to 100 eggs are deposited in a nest cavity under a rock or other object. It takes 1 to 2 months for the eggs to hatch and 4 to 6 years for the young to reach maturity. Mudpuppies may live for up to 20 years. The common mudpuppy is nocturnal, but can be active in the day in muddy or weed-choked waters. It is carnivorous and feeds on fish, fish eggs, crayfish, insects, and molluscs.
}}

{{Species id
| latin_name = Siren intermedia
| common_name = Lesser Siren
| image = Siren intermedia 2.jpg
| range = The Lesser Siren is found in the United States, primarily from Virginia to Florida, and west to Texas (ranging into northeastern Mexico as far as Vera Cruz), and north to Illinois, Indiana and Michigan.
|description = The Lesser Siren appears distinctly eel-like, with an elongated body, 7-26 inches (18-68 cm) in length. They have a pair of greatly reduced front legs, but no back legs. Their head is flattened and blunt with feather-like external gills on each side. They vary in color, from olive green to black, sometimes with darker colored speckling. The Lesser Siren is nocturnal, spending its days hidden in the debris and mud at the bottom of slow moving bodies of water. They feed primarily on aquatic invertebrates, including various kinds of worms, snails, and crustaceans. They will also eat the tadpoles and eggs of other amphibians.
}}

{{Species id
| latin_name = Pseudobranchus striatus
| common_name = Northern Dwarf Siren
| image = P striatus USGS.jpg
| range = South-eastern United States
|description = The Northern Dwarf Sirenis a salamander lacking hind legs. It retains its gills into adulthood.
}}

==6. Describe the life history of some amphibian.==
{{:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Nature/Life cycle of a frog}}

==7. Explain the economic value of amphibians.==
Amphibians are insect eaters, so they are very valuable for controlling mosquito populations. They are also the preferred dinner for several mammal, bird, fish, and reptile species.

Amphibians are valuable for medical research. They are raised and sold to research institutions.

The larvae of newts and salamanders are sold as fish bait.

Amphibians are closely monitored by ecologists, because they are among the first animals affected by environmental problems such as pollution and the destruction of the ozone layer.

==8. Where do toads spend the winter or dry season? ==
Toads burrow below the frost line and hibernate for the winter. Plant matter actually generates a bit of heat as it decays, so toads prefer areas with plenty of leaf litter and fallen logs.

==9. Identify two species of frogs by their sound or imitate the sounds of two different species of frogs.==
[http://www.folkways.si.edu/search/AlbumDetails.aspx?ID=2421# Smithsonian Folkways Recordings] has several frog calls available on CD or for download.

==10. How do frogs and toads sing? What makes the noise so loud?==
Frogs call by passing air through the larynx in the throat. In most calling frogs, the sound is amplified by one or more vocal sacs, membranes of skin under the throat or on the corner of the mouth that bulge out during the amplification of the call.

Some frogs lack vocal sacs, but these species can still produce a loud call. Their mouths are enlarged and dome-shaped, acting as a resonance chamber that amplifies their call. The body of a guitar does much the same thing, having a large hollow section that causes the sound to resonate inside before escaping to the outside atmosphere.

==11. Do one of the following:==
;IMPORTANT: In the 1990's, amphibian populations in the United States and Canada began a precipitous and mysterious decline. Many frogs were discovered in Minnesota with unexplained deformities, including extra limbs, missing limbs, deformed limbs, and missing eyes. As a result, many species of amphibians are now protected by state and federal laws. When observing wild amphibians, it is extremely important that they not be handled. Doing so can spread disease to these creatures, causing further decline. Before venturing out, make sure your Pathfinders understand and appreciate the danger facing amphibians today. Do not allow your group to capture or otherwise harass them, and do not destroy their environment. Rather than pursuing the two options (a and b) listed for this requirement, it may be wiser to substitute an alternate requirement. One possibility is to have your Pathfinders research the amphibian population crash.

===a. Observe a toad in your yard or neighborhood to find out. (1) Where and when it sleeps, (2) When it leaves its home for food, (3) How fast it can travel, (4) How far it can jump, and as many other interesting things as you can find out about it, and write an essay covering the details requested in the first section of this question.===
It is recommended that instead of investigating wild amphibians, the student should research them using other available resources, including the Internet, books, and encyclopedias. It is recognized that observing them in the wild is by far more fascinating, but it also carries the potential to do great harm to the amphibian population. See the notes in section b for more details.

===b. Hatch some amphibian eggs and watch them through their growth cycle and write an essay covering the details.===
Frog eggs can be purchased from http://www.nilesbio.com/subcat367.html - but only in the spring.

According to [http://www.umesc.usgs.gov/terrestrial/amphibians/mknutson_5003869_field_guide.html Field Guide of Amphibian Larvae and Eggs of Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Iowa], a publication of the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), ''"State and federal laws protect amphibians from exploitation. Collection permits are required from the appropriate state or federal authorities before capturing, handling, or collecting amphibians."''

It is therefore recommended that you not attempt to collect amphibian eggs on your own. You can download this book as a PDF from the page cited above. Even if you do not live in Minnesota, Wisconsin, or Iowa, the species covered in this book may be indigenous to your area.

The USGS publication further states, ''"To prevent the spread of disease to native populations, any frogs or salamanders you raise should not be released back into the environment. Lab-raised amphibians can be anesthetized and euthanized with benzocaine or tricaine methanesulfonate (MS 222, Green 2001). If you anticipate difficulty complying with this guidance, you should not undertake raising larvae in captivity."''

==References==
*[[w:Frogs|Wikipedia article on frogs]]
*[[w:Salamander|Wikipedia article on salamanders]]
* http://www.wnrmag.com/stories/1996/apr96/frog.htm
* http://www.californiaherps.com/index.html

[[Category:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Nature|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Completed Honors|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]

AY Honors/Amphibians/Answer Key

2009-02-19T18:41:41Z

MrJoe: /* 5. Make a list of amphibians that should be found in your locality. Identify five and tell where you found them. OR Collect pictures or sketch five different amphibians which you can identify and tell where they are found. */

{{honor_header|1|1945|Nature|General Conference}}
{{AY Master|Naturalist|Options}}
{{AY Master|Zoology|Options}}

==1. What are the characteristics of amphibians?==
Amphibians live half of their lives in water and half on land. They are cold-blooded vertebrates. Amphibians are able to breathe through their skin, making them very sensitive to anything they come in contact with, including human hands. When observing amphibians, one should never touch them. Amphibians have toes rather than claws.

==2. Name the two main orders of amphibia and tell how to distinguish between them.==
;Order Anura (frogs and toads): Adult frogs and toads are characterized by long hind legs, a short body, webbed digits, protruding eyes and the absence of a tail. Most have a semi-aquatic lifestyle, but move easily on land by jumping or climbing. They typically lay their eggs in puddles, ponds or lakes; and their larvae, called tadpoles, have gills and develop in water.

;Order Caudata (newts and salamanders): Cuadata have slender bodies, short legs, and long tails. The moist skin of the amphibians fits them to habitats either near water or under some protection on moist ground, usually in a forest. Some species are aquatic throughout life, some take to the water intermittently, and some are entirely terrestrial as adults. Salamanders superficially resemble lizards, but are easily distinguished by their lack of scales. They are capable of regenerating lost limbs.

==3. Distinguish between toads and frogs.==
The use of the common names "frog" and "toad" has no taxonomic justification. From a taxonomic perspective, all members of the order Anura are frogs, but only members of the family Bufonidae are considered "true toads". The use of the term "frog" in common names usually refers to species that are aquatic or semi-aquatic with smooth or moist skins, and the term "toad" generally refers to species that tend to be terrestrial with dry, warty skin. An exception is the Fire-bellied toad (''Bombina bombina''): while its skin is slightly warty, it prefers a watery habitat.

==4. How do amphibians protect themselves?==
The first line of defense for amphibians is to not be seen by a potential predator. The small size and coloration of many species help in this regard, but sometimes, rather than blending in, frogs are very brightly colored. The coloration in this case serves as a warning, for these frogs are poisonous.

Many frogs contain mild toxins that make them distasteful to potential predators. For example, all toads have large poison glands—the parotid glands—located behind the eyes on the top of the head. Some frogs, such as some poison dart frogs, are especially toxic.

Salamanders have the ability to detach their tails at will. When a predator captures a salamander by the tail, the salamander detaches its tail and escapes. The tail ''regenerates'' or grows back.

==5. Make a list of amphibians that should be found in your locality. Identify five and tell where you found them. OR Collect pictures or sketch five different amphibians which you can identify and tell where they are found.==

{{TODO|Expand this section to include more species}}

{{Species id
| latin_name = Lithobates catesbeianus
| common_name = Bullfrog
| image = Bullfrog - natures pics.jpg
| range = The American Bull Frog is native to North America. They are found in the United States, Canada and Mexico, east of the Rocky Mountains, but have been introduced to many other localities throughout the world. In Europe and the western U.S., measures are often taken to control its spread because it competes with, and often drives out, native species.
|description = The bull frog is a large species that has many similarities to its 'sister species' of toad, and can grow to a length of 6 inches (15 cm) with a weight of up to 1.5 lb (750 g). Females are typically larger than males. They are generally varying shades of green or brown, with dark brown, dark green, or black blotching and a yellow or white underside. Bull frogs are carnivorous and will consume almost anything that fits into their mouth which they can overpower, including insects, small mammals, fish, snakes, and even other frogs. They tend to eat more dragonflies than flies. The adult frog can live up to 13 years.
}}

{{Species id
| latin_name = Bufo americanus
| common_name = American Toad
| image = Bufo americanusPCCA20060417-3352B.jpg
| range = The American toad is a common species of toad found throughout the eastern United States and Canada.
|description = The American toad is a medium sized toad usually found in the range from 2 to over 3 1/2 inches. The color and pattern is somewhat variable. The Eastern American toad has spots that contain only one to two warts. It also has enlarged warts on the tibia or lower leg below the knee. While the belly is usually spotted, it is generally more so on the forward half (in some rare individuals there may be few or no spots).
}}

{{Species id
| latin_name = Hyla versicolor
| common_name = Grey Tree Frog
| image = Bufo 6759.jpg
| range = Grey tree frogs inhabit a wide range, and can be found in most of the eastern half of the United States, as far west as central Texas. They also range into Canada in the provinces of Ontario and Manitoba, with an isolated population in New Brunswick.
| description = Grey tree frogs live primarily in trees, spending time in wooded areas, usually not far from a permanent water source. On rainy evenings they can often be found calling in or near shallow, temporary pools of water. They are nocturnal and insectivorous, consuming most any small arthropod they can catch. Mating occurs throughout the spring and summer months.
}}

{{Species id
| latin_name = Hyla crucifer
| common_name = Spring Peeper
| image = H crucifer USGS.jpg
| range = There are two subspecies of the spring peeper, the northern (P. c. crucifer) and the southern spring peeper (P. c. bartramiana). The northern is similar to the southern except for a strong dark marking on the southern frog's belly. The southern spring peeper is limited to northern Florida and southern Georgia, while the northern can be found all over the east of the USA and eastern Canada.
| description = The spring peeper is a small frog, attaining an adult size between 0.75 and 1.5 inches (up to 40mm) long. They have a dark cross on their backs roughly in the shape of an "X", though sometimes the marking may be indistinct. The color variations of the spring peeper are mostly tan, brown, olive green, or gray. Females are lighter-colored, while males are slightly smaller and usually have dark throats. Spring peepers are nocturnal frogs, so they are mostly heard but not seen. And they are especially easy to hear due to their extremely loud mating call which gives them the name "peeper".
}}

{{Species id
| latin_name = Lithobates sylvaticus
| common_name = Wood Frog
| image = Rana sylvatica.jpg
| range = Wood Frogs are found from northern Georgia and in isolated colonies in the central highlands in the eastern to central parts of Alabama, up through the northeastern United States, and all the way across Canada into Alaska. It is the most widely distributed frog in Alaska. They can be found from southeastern Alaska to north of the Brooks Range.
| description = Wood Frog is the common name given to Lithobates sylvaticus, previously Rana sylvatica. They are the only frogs found north of the Arctic Circle. In winter, as much as 35-45% of the frog's body may freeze, and turn to ice. Ice crystals form beneath the skin and become interspersed among the body's skeletal muscles. During the freeze the frog's breathing, blood flow, and heartbeat cease. Freezing is made possible by specialized proteins, glucose and perhaps accumulation of urea, which prevent intracellular freezing and dehydration. Wood Frogs primarily breed in ephemeral pools rather than permanent water bodies such as ponds or lakes. Adults emerge from hibernation in early spring and migrate to nearby pools. There, males chorus (a quacking sound) and mating occurs. Adult Wood Frogs spend summer months in moist woodlands, forested swamps, and bogs where they forage and maintain body moisture as surrounding environments dry out. Females' eggs are formed by late fall. By late fall or early winter, they leave forested swamps and travel to neighboring uplands to overwinter. Some may remain in moist areas to overwinter. They tend to hibernate in the upper organic layers of the soil, under leaf litter, and in close proximity to breeding pools.
}}

{{Species id
| latin_name = Rana
| common_name = Leopard Frog
| image = Green-leopard-frog-in-swamp.jpg
| range = Once abundant in North America and Canada, their population has declined in recent years because of pollution and deforestation. Leopard frogs are often used as environmental indicator species because of their heightened sensitivity to chemical pollutants found in the air and water.
| description = Leopard frogs, which are also called meadow frogs and grass frogs, are a collection of so-called true frog within the genus Rana. They are commonly used as dissection specimens in biology classrooms. Leopard frogs are recognized by their green or brown coloration with distinct light-edged dark spots across the back and white underside. They also have a characteristic line of raised glandular skin extending from each eye to the groin.
}}

{{Species id
| latin_name = Pseudacris regilla
| common_name =Pacific Chorus Frog
| image = Pseudacris regilla.png
| range = The Pacific Chorus Frog, formerly the Pacific Tree Frog (Hyla regilla) is a species of chorus frog native to the pacific coast of North America from Baja California in Mexico, through the states of California, Oregon, Washington (it is the Washington state frog), and into Canada and extreme southern Alaska. It ranges east into Nevada and Idaho.
| description = This is probably the most commonly heard and encountered frog in California and its call is often heard as a nighttime background sound in Hollywood movies. The Pacific tree frog can reach up to about 5 cm in length. The males are often smaller than the females. These frogs can have highly variable color on their bodies anywhere from gray, brown, tan or bright green and can even change between them. They are usually a pale or white color on their bellies. They have many variations of markings on their back and sides that are usually dark and spotty. The one identifiable mark is a dark stripe that goes over the eye from the nose to the shoulder. Their skin is covered in small bumps. They have long legs compared to their bodies and they tend to be slender. Their toes are long and are only very slightly webbed. On the end of each toe, there is a round sticky pad that is used for climbing and sticking to surfaces.
}}

{{Species id
| latin_name = Litoria caerulea
| common_name =Australian Green Tree Frog
| image = Caerulea3 crop.jpg
| range = The Australian Green Tree Frog, simply Green Tree Frog in Australia, White's Tree Frog, or Dumpy Tree Frog (Litoria caerulea) is a species of tree frog native to Australia and New Guinea, with introduced populations in New Zealand and the United States.
| description = The Green Tree Frog can grow up to 10 centimeters (4 inches) in length. Its color depends on the temperature and color of the environment, ranging from brown to green; the ventral surface is white. The frog occasionally has small, white, irregularly shaped spots on its back, up to five millimeters in diameter, which increase in number with age.
}}

{{Species id
| latin_name = Cryptobranchus alleganiensis
| common_name = Hellbender
| image = Cryptobranchus alleganiensis.jpg
| range = The range of the Eastern Hellbender (C. a. alleganiensis) in North America extends from southwestern and south central New York, west to southern Illinois, and south to extreme northeastern Mississippi and the northern parts of Alabama and Georgia. A disjunct population occurs in east-central Missouri. The Ozark Hellbender (C. a. bishopi) subspecies exists as a disjunct population in southeastern Missouri and adjacent northwest Arkansas. Hellbenders are considered endangered in Illinois, Indiana, Maryland, and Ohio and rare or of "special concern" in Georgia, New York, North Carolina and Virginia.
|description = The Hellbender is a large aquatic salamander native to North America whose habitat includes large, swiftly flowing streams with rocky bottoms. Common names include the "snot otter" and "devil dog." Hellbenders have a flat body and head, with small eyes. Like all salamanders, they have short legs and thin bodies. Their tails, however, are especially keeled to help propel them through water. They have four toes on their front legs and five on their back ones.
}}

{{Species id
| latin_name = Necturus maculosus
| common_name = Common Mudpuppy
| image = Necturus maculosus maculosus.jpg
| range = The Common Mudpuppy is a species of aquatic salamander found throughout the northeastern United States, and parts of Canada.
|description = Mudpuppies prefer shallow water with lots of places to hide, but have been found at depths of up to 90 feet. The mating season is late autumn however eggs are not laid until late spring when 50 to 100 eggs are deposited in a nest cavity under a rock or other object. It takes 1 to 2 months for the eggs to hatch and 4 to 6 years for the young to reach maturity. Mudpuppies may live for up to 20 years. The common mudpuppy is nocturnal, but can be active in the day in muddy or weed-choked waters. It is carnivorous and feeds on fish, fish eggs, crayfish, insects, and molluscs.
}}

{{Species id
| latin_name = Siren intermedia
| common_name = Lesser Siren
| image = Siren intermedia 2.jpg
| range = The Lesser Siren is found in the United States, primarily from Virginia to Florida, and west to Texas (ranging into northeastern Mexico as far as Vera Cruz), and north to Illinois, Indiana and Michigan.
|description = The Lesser Siren appears distinctly eel-like, with an elongated body, 7-26 inches (18-68 cm) in length. They have a pair of greatly reduced front legs, but no back legs. Their head is flattened and blunt with feather-like external gills on each side. They vary in color, from olive green to black, sometimes with darker colored speckling. The Lesser Siren is nocturnal, spending its days hidden in the debris and mud at the bottom of slow moving bodies of water. They feed primarily on aquatic invertebrates, including various kinds of worms, snails, and crustaceans. They will also eat the tadpoles and eggs of other amphibians.
}}

{{Species id
| latin_name = Pseudobranchus striatus
| common_name = Northern Dwarf Siren
| image = P striatus USGS.jpg
| range = South-eastern United States
|description = The Northern Dwarf Sirenis a salamander lacking hind legs. It retains its gills into adulthood.
}}

==6. Describe the life history of some amphibian.==
{{:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Nature/Life cycle of a frog}}

==7. Explain the economic value of amphibians.==
Amphibians are insect eaters, so they are very valuable for controlling mosquito populations. They are also the preferred dinner for several mammal, bird, fish, and reptile species.

Amphibians are valuable for medical research. They are raised and sold to research institutions.

The larvae of newts and salamanders are sold as fish bait.

Amphibians are closely monitored by ecologists, because they are among the first animals affected by environmental problems such as pollution and the destruction of the ozone layer.

==8. Where do toads spend the winter or dry season? ==
Toads burrow below the frost line and hibernate for the winter. Plant matter actually generates a bit of heat as it decays, so toads prefer areas with plenty of leaf litter and fallen logs.

==9. Identify two species of frogs by their sound or imitate the sounds of two different species of frogs.==
[http://www.folkways.si.edu/search/AlbumDetails.aspx?ID=2421# Smithsonian Folkways Recordings] has several frog calls available on CD or for download.

==10. How do frogs and toads sing? What makes the noise so loud?==
Frogs call by passing air through the larynx in the throat. In most calling frogs, the sound is amplified by one or more vocal sacs, membranes of skin under the throat or on the corner of the mouth that bulge out during the amplification of the call.

Some frogs lack vocal sacs, but these species can still produce a loud call. Their mouths are enlarged and dome-shaped, acting as a resonance chamber that amplifies their call. The body of a guitar does much the same thing, having a large hollow section that causes the sound to resonate inside before escaping to the outside atmosphere.

==11. Do one of the following:==
;IMPORTANT: In the 1990's, amphibian populations in the United States and Canada began a precipitous and mysterious decline. Many frogs were discovered in Minnesota with unexplained deformities, including extra limbs, missing limbs, deformed limbs, and missing eyes. As a result, many species of amphibians are now protected by state and federal laws. When observing wild amphibians, it is extremely important that they not be handled. Doing so can spread disease to these creatures, causing further decline. Before venturing out, make sure your Pathfinders understand and appreciate the danger facing amphibians today. Do not allow your group to capture or otherwise harass them, and do not destroy their environment. Rather than pursuing the two options (a and b) listed for this requirement, it may be wiser to substitute an alternate requirement. One possibility is to have your Pathfinders research the amphibian population crash.

===a. Observe a toad in your yard or neighborhood to find out. (1) Where and when it sleeps, (2) When it leaves its home for food, (3) How fast it can travel, (4) How far it can jump, and as many other interesting things as you can find out about it, and write an essay covering the details requested in the first section of this question.===
It is recommended that instead of investigating wild amphibians, the student should research them using other available resources, including the Internet, books, and encyclopedias. It is recognized that observing them in the wild is by far more fascinating, but it also carries the potential to do great harm to the amphibian population. See the notes in section b for more details.

===b. Hatch some amphibian eggs and watch them through their growth cycle and write an essay covering the details.===
Frog eggs can be purchased from http://www.nilesbio.com/subcat367.html - but only in the spring.

According to [http://www.umesc.usgs.gov/terrestrial/amphibians/mknutson_5003869_field_guide.html Field Guide of Amphibian Larvae and Eggs of Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Iowa], a publication of the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), ''"State and federal laws protect amphibians from exploitation. Collection permits are required from the appropriate state or federal authorities before capturing, handling, or collecting amphibians."''

It is therefore recommended that you not attempt to collect amphibian eggs on your own. You can download this book as a PDF from the page cited above. Even if you do not live in Minnesota, Wisconsin, or Iowa, the species covered in this book may be indigenous to your area.

The USGS publication further states, ''"To prevent the spread of disease to native populations, any frogs or salamanders you raise should not be released back into the environment. Lab-raised amphibians can be anesthetized and euthanized with benzocaine or tricaine methanesulfonate (MS 222, Green 2001). If you anticipate difficulty complying with this guidance, you should not undertake raising larvae in captivity."''

==References==
*[[w:Frogs|Wikipedia article on frogs]]
*[[w:Salamander|Wikipedia article on salamanders]]
* http://www.wnrmag.com/stories/1996/apr96/frog.htm

[[Category:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Nature|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Completed Honors|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]

AY Honors/Amphibians/Answer Key

2009-02-19T18:39:58Z

MrJoe: Added Pseudacris regilla - Pacific Chorus Frog aka Pacific Tree Frog.

{{honor_header|1|1945|Nature|General Conference}}
{{AY Master|Naturalist|Options}}
{{AY Master|Zoology|Options}}

==1. What are the characteristics of amphibians?==
Amphibians live half of their lives in water and half on land. They are cold-blooded vertebrates. Amphibians are able to breathe through their skin, making them very sensitive to anything they come in contact with, including human hands. When observing amphibians, one should never touch them. Amphibians have toes rather than claws.

==2. Name the two main orders of amphibia and tell how to distinguish between them.==
;Order Anura (frogs and toads): Adult frogs and toads are characterized by long hind legs, a short body, webbed digits, protruding eyes and the absence of a tail. Most have a semi-aquatic lifestyle, but move easily on land by jumping or climbing. They typically lay their eggs in puddles, ponds or lakes; and their larvae, called tadpoles, have gills and develop in water.

;Order Caudata (newts and salamanders): Cuadata have slender bodies, short legs, and long tails. The moist skin of the amphibians fits them to habitats either near water or under some protection on moist ground, usually in a forest. Some species are aquatic throughout life, some take to the water intermittently, and some are entirely terrestrial as adults. Salamanders superficially resemble lizards, but are easily distinguished by their lack of scales. They are capable of regenerating lost limbs.

==3. Distinguish between toads and frogs.==
The use of the common names "frog" and "toad" has no taxonomic justification. From a taxonomic perspective, all members of the order Anura are frogs, but only members of the family Bufonidae are considered "true toads". The use of the term "frog" in common names usually refers to species that are aquatic or semi-aquatic with smooth or moist skins, and the term "toad" generally refers to species that tend to be terrestrial with dry, warty skin. An exception is the Fire-bellied toad (''Bombina bombina''): while its skin is slightly warty, it prefers a watery habitat.

==4. How do amphibians protect themselves?==
The first line of defense for amphibians is to not be seen by a potential predator. The small size and coloration of many species help in this regard, but sometimes, rather than blending in, frogs are very brightly colored. The coloration in this case serves as a warning, for these frogs are poisonous.

Many frogs contain mild toxins that make them distasteful to potential predators. For example, all toads have large poison glands—the parotid glands—located behind the eyes on the top of the head. Some frogs, such as some poison dart frogs, are especially toxic.

Salamanders have the ability to detach their tails at will. When a predator captures a salamander by the tail, the salamander detaches its tail and escapes. The tail ''regenerates'' or grows back.

==5. Make a list of amphibians that should be found in your locality. Identify five and tell where you found them. OR Collect pictures or sketch five different amphibians which you can identify and tell where they are found.==

{{TODO|Expand this section to include more species}}

{{Species id
| latin_name = Lithobates catesbeianus
| common_name = Bullfrog
| image = Bullfrog - natures pics.jpg
| range = The American Bull Frog is native to North America. They are found in the United States, Canada and Mexico, east of the Rocky Mountains, but have been introduced to many other localities throughout the world. In Europe and the western U.S., measures are often taken to control its spread because it competes with, and often drives out, native species.
|description = The bull frog is a large species that has many similarities to its 'sister species' of toad, and can grow to a length of 6 inches (15 cm) with a weight of up to 1.5 lb (750 g). Females are typically larger than males. They are generally varying shades of green or brown, with dark brown, dark green, or black blotching and a yellow or white underside. Bull frogs are carnivorous and will consume almost anything that fits into their mouth which they can overpower, including insects, small mammals, fish, snakes, and even other frogs. They tend to eat more dragonflies than flies. The adult frog can live up to 13 years.
}}

{{Species id
| latin_name = Bufo americanus
| common_name = American Toad
| image = Bufo americanusPCCA20060417-3352B.jpg
| range = The American toad is a common species of toad found throughout the eastern United States and Canada.
|description = The American toad is a medium sized toad usually found in the range from 2 to over 3 1/2 inches. The color and pattern is somewhat variable. The Eastern American toad has spots that contain only one to two warts. It also has enlarged warts on the tibia or lower leg below the knee. While the belly is usually spotted, it is generally more so on the forward half (in some rare individuals there may be few or no spots).
}}

{{Species id
| latin_name = Hyla versicolor
| common_name = Grey Tree Frog
| image = Bufo 6759.jpg
| range = Grey tree frogs inhabit a wide range, and can be found in most of the eastern half of the United States, as far west as central Texas. They also range into Canada in the provinces of Ontario and Manitoba, with an isolated population in New Brunswick.
| description = Grey tree frogs live primarily in trees, spending time in wooded areas, usually not far from a permanent water source. On rainy evenings they can often be found calling in or near shallow, temporary pools of water. They are nocturnal and insectivorous, consuming most any small arthropod they can catch. Mating occurs throughout the spring and summer months.
}}

{{Species id
| latin_name = Hyla crucifer
| common_name = Spring Peeper
| image = H crucifer USGS.jpg
| range = There are two subspecies of the spring peeper, the northern (P. c. crucifer) and the southern spring peeper (P. c. bartramiana). The northern is similar to the southern except for a strong dark marking on the southern frog's belly. The southern spring peeper is limited to northern Florida and southern Georgia, while the northern can be found all over the east of the USA and eastern Canada.
| description = The spring peeper is a small frog, attaining an adult size between 0.75 and 1.5 inches (up to 40mm) long. They have a dark cross on their backs roughly in the shape of an "X", though sometimes the marking may be indistinct. The color variations of the spring peeper are mostly tan, brown, olive green, or gray. Females are lighter-colored, while males are slightly smaller and usually have dark throats. Spring peepers are nocturnal frogs, so they are mostly heard but not seen. And they are especially easy to hear due to their extremely loud mating call which gives them the name "peeper".
}}

{{Species id
| latin_name = Lithobates sylvaticus
| common_name = Wood Frog
| image = Rana sylvatica.jpg
| range = Wood Frogs are found from northern Georgia and in isolated colonies in the central highlands in the eastern to central parts of Alabama, up through the northeastern United States, and all the way across Canada into Alaska. It is the most widely distributed frog in Alaska. They can be found from southeastern Alaska to north of the Brooks Range.
| description = Wood Frog is the common name given to Lithobates sylvaticus, previously Rana sylvatica. They are the only frogs found north of the Arctic Circle. In winter, as much as 35-45% of the frog's body may freeze, and turn to ice. Ice crystals form beneath the skin and become interspersed among the body's skeletal muscles. During the freeze the frog's breathing, blood flow, and heartbeat cease. Freezing is made possible by specialized proteins, glucose and perhaps accumulation of urea, which prevent intracellular freezing and dehydration. Wood Frogs primarily breed in ephemeral pools rather than permanent water bodies such as ponds or lakes. Adults emerge from hibernation in early spring and migrate to nearby pools. There, males chorus (a quacking sound) and mating occurs. Adult Wood Frogs spend summer months in moist woodlands, forested swamps, and bogs where they forage and maintain body moisture as surrounding environments dry out. Females' eggs are formed by late fall. By late fall or early winter, they leave forested swamps and travel to neighboring uplands to overwinter. Some may remain in moist areas to overwinter. They tend to hibernate in the upper organic layers of the soil, under leaf litter, and in close proximity to breeding pools.
}}

{{Species id
| latin_name = Rana
| common_name = Leopard Frog
| image = Green-leopard-frog-in-swamp.jpg
| range = Once abundant in North America and Canada, their population has declined in recent years because of pollution and deforestation. Leopard frogs are often used as environmental indicator species because of their heightened sensitivity to chemical pollutants found in the air and water.
| description = Leopard frogs, which are also called meadow frogs and grass frogs, are a collection of so-called true frog within the genus Rana. They are commonly used as dissection specimens in biology classrooms. Leopard frogs are recognized by their green or brown coloration with distinct light-edged dark spots across the back and white underside. They also have a characteristic line of raised glandular skin extending from each eye to the groin.
}}

{{Species id
| latin_name = Pseudacris regilla
| common_name =Pacific Chorus Frog
| image = Pseudacris regilla.png
| range = The Pacific Chorus Frog, or Pacific Tree Frog (Pseudacris regilla) is a species of chorus frog native to the pacific coast of North America from Baja California in Mexico, through the states of California, Oregon, Washington (it is the Washington state frog), and into Canada and extreme southern Alaska. It ranges east into Nevada and Idaho.
| description = This is probably the most commonly heard and encountered frog in California and its call is often heard as a nighttime background sound in Hollywood movies. The Pacific tree frog can reach up to about 5 cm in length. The males are often smaller than the females. These frogs can have highly variable color on their bodies anywhere from gray, brown, tan or bright green and can even change between them. They are usually a pale or white color on their bellies. They have many variations of markings on their back and sides that are usually dark and spotty. The one identifiable mark is a dark stripe that goes over the eye from the nose to the shoulder. Their skin is covered in small bumps. They have long legs compared to their bodies and they tend to be slender. Their toes are long and are only very slightly webbed. On the end of each toe, there is a round sticky pad that is used for climbing and sticking to surfaces.
}}

{{Species id
| latin_name = Litoria caerulea
| common_name =Australian Green Tree Frog
| image = Caerulea3 crop.jpg
| range = The Australian Green Tree Frog, simply Green Tree Frog in Australia, White's Tree Frog, or Dumpy Tree Frog (Litoria caerulea) is a species of tree frog native to Australia and New Guinea, with introduced populations in New Zealand and the United States.
| description = The Green Tree Frog can grow up to 10 centimeters (4 inches) in length. Its color depends on the temperature and color of the environment, ranging from brown to green; the ventral surface is white. The frog occasionally has small, white, irregularly shaped spots on its back, up to five millimeters in diameter, which increase in number with age.
}}

{{Species id
| latin_name = Cryptobranchus alleganiensis
| common_name = Hellbender
| image = Cryptobranchus alleganiensis.jpg
| range = The range of the Eastern Hellbender (C. a. alleganiensis) in North America extends from southwestern and south central New York, west to southern Illinois, and south to extreme northeastern Mississippi and the northern parts of Alabama and Georgia. A disjunct population occurs in east-central Missouri. The Ozark Hellbender (C. a. bishopi) subspecies exists as a disjunct population in southeastern Missouri and adjacent northwest Arkansas. Hellbenders are considered endangered in Illinois, Indiana, Maryland, and Ohio and rare or of "special concern" in Georgia, New York, North Carolina and Virginia.
|description = The Hellbender is a large aquatic salamander native to North America whose habitat includes large, swiftly flowing streams with rocky bottoms. Common names include the "snot otter" and "devil dog." Hellbenders have a flat body and head, with small eyes. Like all salamanders, they have short legs and thin bodies. Their tails, however, are especially keeled to help propel them through water. They have four toes on their front legs and five on their back ones.
}}

{{Species id
| latin_name = Necturus maculosus
| common_name = Common Mudpuppy
| image = Necturus maculosus maculosus.jpg
| range = The Common Mudpuppy is a species of aquatic salamander found throughout the northeastern United States, and parts of Canada.
|description = Mudpuppies prefer shallow water with lots of places to hide, but have been found at depths of up to 90 feet. The mating season is late autumn however eggs are not laid until late spring when 50 to 100 eggs are deposited in a nest cavity under a rock or other object. It takes 1 to 2 months for the eggs to hatch and 4 to 6 years for the young to reach maturity. Mudpuppies may live for up to 20 years. The common mudpuppy is nocturnal, but can be active in the day in muddy or weed-choked waters. It is carnivorous and feeds on fish, fish eggs, crayfish, insects, and molluscs.
}}

{{Species id
| latin_name = Siren intermedia
| common_name = Lesser Siren
| image = Siren intermedia 2.jpg
| range = The Lesser Siren is found in the United States, primarily from Virginia to Florida, and west to Texas (ranging into northeastern Mexico as far as Vera Cruz), and north to Illinois, Indiana and Michigan.
|description = The Lesser Siren appears distinctly eel-like, with an elongated body, 7-26 inches (18-68 cm) in length. They have a pair of greatly reduced front legs, but no back legs. Their head is flattened and blunt with feather-like external gills on each side. They vary in color, from olive green to black, sometimes with darker colored speckling. The Lesser Siren is nocturnal, spending its days hidden in the debris and mud at the bottom of slow moving bodies of water. They feed primarily on aquatic invertebrates, including various kinds of worms, snails, and crustaceans. They will also eat the tadpoles and eggs of other amphibians.
}}

{{Species id
| latin_name = Pseudobranchus striatus
| common_name = Northern Dwarf Siren
| image = P striatus USGS.jpg
| range = South-eastern United States
|description = The Northern Dwarf Sirenis a salamander lacking hind legs. It retains its gills into adulthood.
}}

==6. Describe the life history of some amphibian.==
{{:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Nature/Life cycle of a frog}}

==7. Explain the economic value of amphibians.==
Amphibians are insect eaters, so they are very valuable for controlling mosquito populations. They are also the preferred dinner for several mammal, bird, fish, and reptile species.

Amphibians are valuable for medical research. They are raised and sold to research institutions.

The larvae of newts and salamanders are sold as fish bait.

Amphibians are closely monitored by ecologists, because they are among the first animals affected by environmental problems such as pollution and the destruction of the ozone layer.

==8. Where do toads spend the winter or dry season? ==
Toads burrow below the frost line and hibernate for the winter. Plant matter actually generates a bit of heat as it decays, so toads prefer areas with plenty of leaf litter and fallen logs.

==9. Identify two species of frogs by their sound or imitate the sounds of two different species of frogs.==
[http://www.folkways.si.edu/search/AlbumDetails.aspx?ID=2421# Smithsonian Folkways Recordings] has several frog calls available on CD or for download.

==10. How do frogs and toads sing? What makes the noise so loud?==
Frogs call by passing air through the larynx in the throat. In most calling frogs, the sound is amplified by one or more vocal sacs, membranes of skin under the throat or on the corner of the mouth that bulge out during the amplification of the call.

Some frogs lack vocal sacs, but these species can still produce a loud call. Their mouths are enlarged and dome-shaped, acting as a resonance chamber that amplifies their call. The body of a guitar does much the same thing, having a large hollow section that causes the sound to resonate inside before escaping to the outside atmosphere.

==11. Do one of the following:==
;IMPORTANT: In the 1990's, amphibian populations in the United States and Canada began a precipitous and mysterious decline. Many frogs were discovered in Minnesota with unexplained deformities, including extra limbs, missing limbs, deformed limbs, and missing eyes. As a result, many species of amphibians are now protected by state and federal laws. When observing wild amphibians, it is extremely important that they not be handled. Doing so can spread disease to these creatures, causing further decline. Before venturing out, make sure your Pathfinders understand and appreciate the danger facing amphibians today. Do not allow your group to capture or otherwise harass them, and do not destroy their environment. Rather than pursuing the two options (a and b) listed for this requirement, it may be wiser to substitute an alternate requirement. One possibility is to have your Pathfinders research the amphibian population crash.

===a. Observe a toad in your yard or neighborhood to find out. (1) Where and when it sleeps, (2) When it leaves its home for food, (3) How fast it can travel, (4) How far it can jump, and as many other interesting things as you can find out about it, and write an essay covering the details requested in the first section of this question.===
It is recommended that instead of investigating wild amphibians, the student should research them using other available resources, including the Internet, books, and encyclopedias. It is recognized that observing them in the wild is by far more fascinating, but it also carries the potential to do great harm to the amphibian population. See the notes in section b for more details.

===b. Hatch some amphibian eggs and watch them through their growth cycle and write an essay covering the details.===
Frog eggs can be purchased from http://www.nilesbio.com/subcat367.html - but only in the spring.

According to [http://www.umesc.usgs.gov/terrestrial/amphibians/mknutson_5003869_field_guide.html Field Guide of Amphibian Larvae and Eggs of Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Iowa], a publication of the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), ''"State and federal laws protect amphibians from exploitation. Collection permits are required from the appropriate state or federal authorities before capturing, handling, or collecting amphibians."''

It is therefore recommended that you not attempt to collect amphibian eggs on your own. You can download this book as a PDF from the page cited above. Even if you do not live in Minnesota, Wisconsin, or Iowa, the species covered in this book may be indigenous to your area.

The USGS publication further states, ''"To prevent the spread of disease to native populations, any frogs or salamanders you raise should not be released back into the environment. Lab-raised amphibians can be anesthetized and euthanized with benzocaine or tricaine methanesulfonate (MS 222, Green 2001). If you anticipate difficulty complying with this guidance, you should not undertake raising larvae in captivity."''

==References==
*[[w:Frogs|Wikipedia article on frogs]]
*[[w:Salamander|Wikipedia article on salamanders]]
* http://www.wnrmag.com/stories/1996/apr96/frog.htm

[[Category:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Nature|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Completed Honors|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]

AY Honors/Lashing/Continuous

2009-01-07T18:39:03Z

MrJoe: spelling

===Continuous Lashing===
[[Image:Continuous-lashing.jpg|thumb|right|500px|Continuous Lashing]]

'''Continuous Lashing''' is a fun technique. It is used to create shelves, tables, and other structures.

''Comments on the pictures on the right'''
# Support poles under the 'surface' poles.
# Attach string to the support pole using a clove hitch.
# Clove hitch, up over surface pole, back down & cross under below support pole, and up over the second surface pole.
# Detail of lashing as seen from top.
# Detail of lashing as seen from bottom. Inset shows details of clove hitch, and cross-under below support pole.
# View from the top.

<hr>

* Start with a string/rope that is 4 or 5 times longer than the length of your project.
* Find the middle/center of the string and attach it to one of the support poles.
* Put one of the surface sticks on top of the support pole and bring both ends of the string over this surface stick.
* Continue back down below the support pole.
* Cross the string under the support pole.
* Bring it back up and over the next surface stick and then back down and cross under the support pole.
* Repeat for the remaining surface sticks.
* End off with a square knot when all the surface sticks are attached.

[[Category:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]

AY Honors/Hot Air Balloons/Answer Key

2008-11-11T01:00:06Z

MrJoe: Modify wording, add mention of ballast.

{{honor_header|Unknown|2008|Arts and Crafts|North American Division}}

{{AY patch unavailable|2008|August, 2008}}

==1. State the role each of the following played in the development of flying balloons.==
===a. Joseph Michel Montgolfier and Jacques-Etienne Montgolfier===
<gallery>
Image:Josephmontgolfier.jpg|Joseph Michel Montgolfier
Image:Jacques Étienne Montgolfier.jpg|Jacques-Etienne Montgolfier
</gallery>

Joseph-Michel Montgolfier (26 August 1740 – 26 June 1810) and Jacques-Étienne Montgolfier (6 January 1745 – 2 August 1799) were the inventors of the montgolfière, or airship. The brothers succeeded in launching the first manned ascent, carrying a young physician and an audacious army officer into the sky.

Of the two brothers, it was Joseph who first contemplated building "machines". Joseph observed laundry drying over a fire incidentally form pockets that billowed upwards. Joseph set about building a box-like chamber {{units|1 by 1 by 1.3 meters|3 by 3 by 4 ft}} out of very thin wood and covering the sides and top with lightweight taffeta cloth. Under the bottom of the box he crumpled and lit some paper. The contraption quickly lifted off its stand and collided with the ceiling. Joseph then recruited his brother to balloon building.

The two brothers then set about building a contraption 3 times larger in scale (27 times larger in volume). The lifting force was so great that they lost control of their craft on its very first test flight on 14 December 1782. The device floated nearly 2 kilometres (about 1.2 mi). It was destroyed after landing by the "indiscretion" of passersby.

===b. Jean Francois Pilatre de Rozier and Francois Laurent Marquis d'Arlandes.===
[[image:Early flight 02562u (4).jpg|thumb|200px|The first untethered balloon flight, by Rozier and the Marquis d'Arlandes on 21 November 1783.]]
Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier (30 March 1754 – 15 June 1785) was a French chemistry and physics teacher, and one of the first pioneers of aviation. His balloon crashed near Wimereux in the Pas-de-Calais during an attempt to fly across the English Channel, and he and his companion, Pierre Romain, became the first known victims of an air crash.

In June 1783, he witnessed the first balloon flight of the Montgolfier brothers. On 19 September, he assisted with the untethered flight of a sheep, a cockerel and a duck from the front courtyard of the Palace of Versailles. After a variety of tests in October, he made the first manned free flight in history on 21 November 1783, accompanied by the ambitious Marquis d'Arlandes. During the 25-minute flight using a Montgolfier hot air balloon, they traveled 12 kilometres from the Château de la Muette to the Butte-aux-Cailles, then in the outskirts of Paris, attaining an altitude of 3,000 feet.
{{clear}}

===c. [[w:Jacques_Alexandre_Cesar_Charles|Jacques Alexandre Cesar Charles]] and Nicolas Louis Robert.===
In December of 1783, these two flew the first gas balloon, filled with hydrogen. This flight lasted for at least 2 hours, starting from the Tuileries gardens in Paris, and landing outside Paris where it was destroyed by terrified peasants.

Charles went on to discover [[w:Charles's_Law| Charles' Law]] which describes the relationship between the density of a gas and its temperature.

===d. [[w:Ben_Abruzzo|Ben L. Abruzzo]], [[w:Maxie_Anderson|Maxie L. Anderson]], and Larry Newman===
From 11 August to 17 August, 1978, these three completed the first transatlantic balloon flight in the [[w:Double_Eagle_II|Double Eagle II]]. They began their flight from Presque Isle, Maine and ended their flight at Miserey, France.

Ben Abruzzo and Larry Newman were also pilots on the [[w:Double_Eagle_V|Double Eagle V]] which in 1981 was the first balloon to cross the Pacific Ocean.

===e. [[w:Bertrand_Piccard|Bertrand Piccard]] and [[w:Brian_Jones_(aeronaut)|Brian Jones]]===
On March 1, 1999, Bertrand Piccard and Brian Jones began the first balloon flight to circumnavigate the earth. Their flight was a success and ended on March 20, 1999. The flight took 19 days and 21 hours. The flight started in Switzerland and ended in Egypt.

==2. Cite the principle of Archimedes, and briefly describe how it applies to each of the following: ==
::Archimedes' Principle states: ''any body fully or partially submerged in a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.''
:;a. A piece of cork floating in a bowl of water.
Cork is less dense than water, and weighs less than the volume of water displaced, causing the cork to float.
:;b. A ship floating in the ocean
Ships, though made of dense materials, are shaped so that much of the interior is air. Because the weight of the ship and its cargo is less than the volume of water displaced, the ship will float.
:;c. A hot air balloon floating in the atmosphere
As long as a balloon plus the gas it contains weighs less than the atmospheric air which it displaces, the balloon will float in the air.

==3. Using a textbook of Chemistry, or a reference book of scientific tables, draw up a simple table showing the composition of air by weight and by volume.==
{|border=1 cellspacing=1 cellpadding=5 align="center"
|-
|Nitrogen|| 78%
|-
|Oxygen||21%
|-
|Argon||.93%
|-
|Carbon Dioxide||.03%
|-
|Other (including Neon, Helium, Hydrogen, Xenon, & Radon)||.04%
|}

==4. Draw up a simple table showing a comparison of the atomic number, atomic weight, and density of hydrogen, helium, nitrogen, and oxygen.==

{|border=1 cellpadding=5 align="center"
|-
!
![[w:Atomic_number|Atomic Number]]
![[w:Atomic_weight|Atomic Weight]]
![[w:Density|Density]] (g/cm³)
|-
![[w:Hydrogen|Hydrogen]]
!1
!1.008
!align="left"|0.00008988
|-
![[w:Helium|Helium]]
!2
!4.003
!align="left"|0.0001785
|-
![[w:Nitrogen|Nitrogen]]
!7
!14.01
!align="left"|0.0012506
|-
![[w:Oxygen|Oxygen]]
!8
!16.00
!align="left"|0.001429
|}

==5. Name two gases that are used in flying gas filled balloons.==
Hydrogen & Helium are both less dense than air and may be used when flying a balloon. Warm air is also used for flying balloons, since it is less dense than cold air.

*Note: Hydrogen burns violently when ignited. After the destruction of the Hindenburg, hydrogen was largely abandoned for the flying of manned balloons.

==6. Explain how heat/temperature affect the density of air, and how this applies to flying hot air balloons.==
As described by [[w:Charles's_Law|Charles' Law]], heat applied to a gas will cause its molecules to move farther apart, reducing it's density. When the air in a balloon is heated above the temperature of the surrounding air, the air in the balloon becomes less dense than the air outside the balloon. Because the balloon is less dense, it will float or rise. The greater the difference in temperature between the air in the balloon and the surrounding air, the greater the difference in density between the air inside and outside the balloon, which increases the lift that the balloon will generate. This explains why balloons are mostly launched in cooler weather.

==7. Explain the role of each of the following in the structure and flying of a hot air balloon.==
; a. Envelope: The outer skin of the balloon, forming the container that holds the gas.
; b. Support structure: The framework of larger balloons.
; c. Throat: The lower opening through which the hot flame is applied to heat the air.
; d. Fuel source: The fuel used to heat the air to make the balloon less dense than the surrounding air.

==8. Name two materials that may be used for the envelope of a hot air balloon, and compare the advantages each cords because of its properties.==
;Paper: Paper may be used for model hot air balloons because of ease of acquisition and low price.
;Plastic: Plastic may be used for model hot air balloons because it is water resistant, easy to work with, and easy to acquire.
;Fabric: Fabric is usually used for larger, manned balloons. The fabric is specially treated.

==9. Describe how flying balloons have served a useful function in==
=== a. Military campaigns===
Military uses include: “eyes in the sky”, observation of enemy troops and positions, delivery of explosives to enemy positions, and defensive use of entangling incoming enemy flying craft.
===b. Scientific research===
Scientific uses include instrument transport for data collecting, atmospheric studies, and aerial photography.

==10. At what time of the day do most sport balloon flights take place? Why?==
Early morning is best because the air has cooled over night making the difference of temperature inside & outside greater, thus increasing buoyancy.

==11. Describe how a pilot controls the vertical movement of==
===a. A hot air balloon===
The pilot controls the vertical movement of a hot air balloon by burning more fuel to make the air in the balloon hotter, causes the air in the balloon to become less dense, making it rise. Conversely, turning off the flame and allowing the air in the balloon to cool renders the air in the balloon more dense with respect to the surrounding atmosphere, causing the balloon to descend. More rapid increases in altitude can be achieved by lessening the weight of the balloon usually by dropping ballast, however this is limited by the amount of ballast available.

===b. A gas filled balloon===
Adding more of the lighter than air gas to ascend, and spilling some of the gas in order to descend varies the altitude of a helium or hydrogen filled balloon.

==12. Describe how a pilot controls the lateral or horizontal movement of a flying balloon.==
Horizontal movement of a gas filled flying balloon is entirely at the mercy of air currents. The pilot can only vary the altitude so as to get into the path of air currents, such as the jet stream. This involves careful study of charts of air currents, close attention to weather data, and a certain element of trial and error. Older airships, like the Hindenburg, had a rudder and propellers to move it so that it did not have to depend on air currents.

==13. Build to completion one model hot air balloon ( or two if working in pairs ).==

==14. Successfully launch, fly, and recover the model hot air balloon(s) which you have built.==

AY Honors/Hot Air Balloons/Answer Key

2008-11-11T00:54:17Z

MrJoe: Add mention of Charles' Law

{{honor_header|Unknown|2008|Arts and Crafts|North American Division}}

{{AY patch unavailable|2008|August, 2008}}

==1. State the role each of the following played in the development of flying balloons.==
===a. Joseph Michel Montgolfier and Jacques-Etienne Montgolfier===
<gallery>
Image:Josephmontgolfier.jpg|Joseph Michel Montgolfier
Image:Jacques Étienne Montgolfier.jpg|Jacques-Etienne Montgolfier
</gallery>

Joseph-Michel Montgolfier (26 August 1740 – 26 June 1810) and Jacques-Étienne Montgolfier (6 January 1745 – 2 August 1799) were the inventors of the montgolfière, or airship. The brothers succeeded in launching the first manned ascent, carrying a young physician and an audacious army officer into the sky.

Of the two brothers, it was Joseph who first contemplated building "machines". Joseph observed laundry drying over a fire incidentally form pockets that billowed upwards. Joseph set about building a box-like chamber {{units|1 by 1 by 1.3 meters|3 by 3 by 4 ft}} out of very thin wood and covering the sides and top with lightweight taffeta cloth. Under the bottom of the box he crumpled and lit some paper. The contraption quickly lifted off its stand and collided with the ceiling. Joseph then recruited his brother to balloon building.

The two brothers then set about building a contraption 3 times larger in scale (27 times larger in volume). The lifting force was so great that they lost control of their craft on its very first test flight on 14 December 1782. The device floated nearly 2 kilometres (about 1.2 mi). It was destroyed after landing by the "indiscretion" of passersby.

===b. Jean Francois Pilatre de Rozier and Francois Laurent Marquis d'Arlandes.===
[[image:Early flight 02562u (4).jpg|thumb|200px|The first untethered balloon flight, by Rozier and the Marquis d'Arlandes on 21 November 1783.]]
Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier (30 March 1754 – 15 June 1785) was a French chemistry and physics teacher, and one of the first pioneers of aviation. His balloon crashed near Wimereux in the Pas-de-Calais during an attempt to fly across the English Channel, and he and his companion, Pierre Romain, became the first known victims of an air crash.

In June 1783, he witnessed the first balloon flight of the Montgolfier brothers. On 19 September, he assisted with the untethered flight of a sheep, a cockerel and a duck from the front courtyard of the Palace of Versailles. After a variety of tests in October, he made the first manned free flight in history on 21 November 1783, accompanied by the ambitious Marquis d'Arlandes. During the 25-minute flight using a Montgolfier hot air balloon, they traveled 12 kilometres from the Château de la Muette to the Butte-aux-Cailles, then in the outskirts of Paris, attaining an altitude of 3,000 feet.
{{clear}}

===c. [[w:Jacques_Alexandre_Cesar_Charles|Jacques Alexandre Cesar Charles]] and Nicolas Louis Robert.===
In December of 1783, these two flew the first gas balloon, filled with hydrogen. This flight lasted for at least 2 hours, starting from the Tuileries gardens in Paris, and landing outside Paris where it was destroyed by terrified peasants.

Charles went on to discover [[w:Charles's_Law| Charles' Law]] which describes the relationship between the density of a gas and its temperature.

===d. [[w:Ben_Abruzzo|Ben L. Abruzzo]], [[w:Maxie_Anderson|Maxie L. Anderson]], and Larry Newman===
From 11 August to 17 August, 1978, these three completed the first transatlantic balloon flight in the [[w:Double_Eagle_II|Double Eagle II]]. They began their flight from Presque Isle, Maine and ended their flight at Miserey, France.

Ben Abruzzo and Larry Newman were also pilots on the [[w:Double_Eagle_V|Double Eagle V]] which in 1981 was the first balloon to cross the Pacific Ocean.

===e. [[w:Bertrand_Piccard|Bertrand Piccard]] and [[w:Brian_Jones_(aeronaut)|Brian Jones]]===
On March 1, 1999, Bertrand Piccard and Brian Jones began the first balloon flight to circumnavigate the earth. Their flight was a success and ended on March 20, 1999. The flight took 19 days and 21 hours. The flight started in Switzerland and ended in Egypt.

==2. Cite the principle of Archimedes, and briefly describe how it applies to each of the following: ==
::Archimedes' Principle states: ''any body fully or partially submerged in a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.''
:;a. A piece of cork floating in a bowl of water.
Cork is less dense than water, and weighs less than the volume of water displaced, causing the cork to float.
:;b. A ship floating in the ocean
Ships, though made of dense materials, are shaped so that much of the interior is air. Because the weight of the ship and its cargo is less than the volume of water displaced, the ship will float.
:;c. A hot air balloon floating in the atmosphere
As long as a balloon plus the gas it contains weighs less than the atmospheric air which it displaces, the balloon will float in the air.

==3. Using a textbook of Chemistry, or a reference book of scientific tables, draw up a simple table showing the composition of air by weight and by volume.==
{|border=1 cellspacing=1 cellpadding=5 align="center"
|-
|Nitrogen|| 78%
|-
|Oxygen||21%
|-
|Argon||.93%
|-
|Carbon Dioxide||.03%
|-
|Other (including Neon, Helium, Hydrogen, Xenon, & Radon)||.04%
|}

==4. Draw up a simple table showing a comparison of the atomic number, atomic weight, and density of hydrogen, helium, nitrogen, and oxygen.==

{|border=1 cellpadding=5 align="center"
|-
!
![[w:Atomic_number|Atomic Number]]
![[w:Atomic_weight|Atomic Weight]]
![[w:Density|Density]] (g/cm³)
|-
![[w:Hydrogen|Hydrogen]]
!1
!1.008
!align="left"|0.00008988
|-
![[w:Helium|Helium]]
!2
!4.003
!align="left"|0.0001785
|-
![[w:Nitrogen|Nitrogen]]
!7
!14.01
!align="left"|0.0012506
|-
![[w:Oxygen|Oxygen]]
!8
!16.00
!align="left"|0.001429
|}

==5. Name two gases that are used in flying gas filled balloons.==
Hydrogen & Helium are both less dense than air and may be used when flying a balloon. Warm air is also used for flying balloons, since it is less dense than cold air.

*Note: Hydrogen burns violently when ignited. After the destruction of the Hindenburg, hydrogen was largely abandoned for the flying of manned balloons.

==6. Explain how heat/temperature affect the density of air, and how this applies to flying hot air balloons.==
As described by [[w:Charles's_Law|Charles' Law]], heat applied to a gas will cause its molecules to move farther apart, reducing it's density. When the air in a balloon is heated above the temperature of the surrounding air, the air in the balloon becomes less dense than the air outside the balloon. Because the balloon is less dense, it will float or rise. The greater the difference in temperature between the air in the balloon and the surrounding air, the greater the difference in density between the air inside and outside the balloon, which increases the lift that the balloon will generate. This explains why balloons are mostly launched in cooler weather.

==7. Explain the role of each of the following in the structure and flying of a hot air balloon.==
; a. Envelope: The outer skin of the balloon, forming the container that holds the gas.
; b. Support structure: The framework of larger balloons.
; c. Throat: The lower opening through which the hot flame is applied to heat the air.
; d. Fuel source: The fuel used to heat the air to make the balloon less dense than the surrounding air.

==8. Name two materials that may be used for the envelope of a hot air balloon, and compare the advantages each cords because of its properties.==
;Paper: Paper may be used for model hot air balloons because of ease of acquisition and low price.
;Plastic: Plastic may be used for model hot air balloons because it is water resistant, easy to work with, and easy to acquire.
;Fabric: Fabric is usually used for larger, manned balloons. The fabric is specially treated.

==9. Describe how flying balloons have served a useful function in==
=== a. Military campaigns===
Military uses include: “eyes in the sky”, observation of enemy troops and positions, delivery of explosives to enemy positions, and defensive use of entangling incoming enemy flying craft.
===b. Scientific research===
Scientific uses include instrument transport for data collecting, atmospheric studies, and aerial photography.

==10. At what time of the day do most sport balloon flights take place? Why?==
Early morning is best because the air has cooled over night making the difference of temperature inside & outside greater, thus increasing buoyancy.

==11. Describe how a pilot controls the vertical movement of==
===a. A hot air balloon===
The pilot controls the vertical movement of a hot air balloon by burning more fuel to make the air in the balloon hotter, causing the less dense air in the balloon to make it rise. Conversely, turning off the flame and allowing the air in the balloon to cool renders the air in the balloon more dense with respect to the surrounding atmosphere, causing the balloon to descend.
===b. A gas filled balloon===
Adding more of the lighter than air gas to ascend, and spilling some of the gas in order to descend varies the altitude of a helium or hydrogen filled balloon.

==12. Describe how a pilot controls the lateral or horizontal movement of a flying balloon.==
Horizontal movement of a gas filled flying balloon is entirely at the mercy of air currents. The pilot can only vary the altitude so as to get into the path of air currents, such as the jet stream. This involves careful study of charts of air currents, close attention to weather data, and a certain element of trial and error. Older airships, like the Hindenburg, had a rudder and propellers to move it so that it did not have to depend on air currents.

==13. Build to completion one model hot air balloon ( or two if working in pairs ).==

==14. Successfully launch, fly, and recover the model hot air balloon(s) which you have built.==

AY Honors/Hot Air Balloons/Answer Key

2008-11-11T00:43:22Z

MrJoe: Add information about Jacques Charles.

{{honor_header|Unknown|2008|Arts and Crafts|North American Division}}

{{AY patch unavailable|2008|August, 2008}}

==1. State the role each of the following played in the development of flying balloons.==
===a. Joseph Michel Montgolfier and Jacques-Etienne Montgolfier===
<gallery>
Image:Josephmontgolfier.jpg|Joseph Michel Montgolfier
Image:Jacques Étienne Montgolfier.jpg|Jacques-Etienne Montgolfier
</gallery>

Joseph-Michel Montgolfier (26 August 1740 – 26 June 1810) and Jacques-Étienne Montgolfier (6 January 1745 – 2 August 1799) were the inventors of the montgolfière, or airship. The brothers succeeded in launching the first manned ascent, carrying a young physician and an audacious army officer into the sky.

Of the two brothers, it was Joseph who first contemplated building "machines". Joseph observed laundry drying over a fire incidentally form pockets that billowed upwards. Joseph set about building a box-like chamber {{units|1 by 1 by 1.3 meters|3 by 3 by 4 ft}} out of very thin wood and covering the sides and top with lightweight taffeta cloth. Under the bottom of the box he crumpled and lit some paper. The contraption quickly lifted off its stand and collided with the ceiling. Joseph then recruited his brother to balloon building.

The two brothers then set about building a contraption 3 times larger in scale (27 times larger in volume). The lifting force was so great that they lost control of their craft on its very first test flight on 14 December 1782. The device floated nearly 2 kilometres (about 1.2 mi). It was destroyed after landing by the "indiscretion" of passersby.

===b. Jean Francois Pilatre de Rozier and Francois Laurent Marquis d'Arlandes.===
[[image:Early flight 02562u (4).jpg|thumb|200px|The first untethered balloon flight, by Rozier and the Marquis d'Arlandes on 21 November 1783.]]
Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier (30 March 1754 – 15 June 1785) was a French chemistry and physics teacher, and one of the first pioneers of aviation. His balloon crashed near Wimereux in the Pas-de-Calais during an attempt to fly across the English Channel, and he and his companion, Pierre Romain, became the first known victims of an air crash.

In June 1783, he witnessed the first balloon flight of the Montgolfier brothers. On 19 September, he assisted with the untethered flight of a sheep, a cockerel and a duck from the front courtyard of the Palace of Versailles. After a variety of tests in October, he made the first manned free flight in history on 21 November 1783, accompanied by the ambitious Marquis d'Arlandes. During the 25-minute flight using a Montgolfier hot air balloon, they traveled 12 kilometres from the Château de la Muette to the Butte-aux-Cailles, then in the outskirts of Paris, attaining an altitude of 3,000 feet.
{{clear}}

===c. [[w:Jacques_Alexandre_Cesar_Charles|Jacques Alexandre Cesar Charles]] and Nicolas Louis Robert.===
In December of 1783, these two flew the first gas balloon, filled with hydrogen. This flight lasted for at least 2 hours, starting from the Tuileries gardens in Paris, and landing outside Paris where it was destroyed by terrified peasants.

Charles went on to discover [[w:Charles's_Law| Charles' Law]] which describes the relationship between the density of a gas and its temperature.

===d. [[w:Ben_Abruzzo|Ben L. Abruzzo]], [[w:Maxie_Anderson|Maxie L. Anderson]], and Larry Newman===
From 11 August to 17 August, 1978, these three completed the first transatlantic balloon flight in the [[w:Double_Eagle_II|Double Eagle II]]. They began their flight from Presque Isle, Maine and ended their flight at Miserey, France.

Ben Abruzzo and Larry Newman were also pilots on the [[w:Double_Eagle_V|Double Eagle V]] which in 1981 was the first balloon to cross the Pacific Ocean.

===e. [[w:Bertrand_Piccard|Bertrand Piccard]] and [[w:Brian_Jones_(aeronaut)|Brian Jones]]===
On March 1, 1999, Bertrand Piccard and Brian Jones began the first balloon flight to circumnavigate the earth. Their flight was a success and ended on March 20, 1999. The flight took 19 days and 21 hours. The flight started in Switzerland and ended in Egypt.

==2. Cite the principle of Archimedes, and briefly describe how it applies to each of the following: ==
::Archimedes' Principle states: ''any body fully or partially submerged in a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.''
:;a. A piece of cork floating in a bowl of water.
Cork is less dense than water, and weighs less than the volume of water displaced, causing the cork to float.
:;b. A ship floating in the ocean
Ships, though made of dense materials, are shaped so that much of the interior is air. Because the weight of the ship and its cargo is less than the volume of water displaced, the ship will float.
:;c. A hot air balloon floating in the atmosphere
As long as a balloon plus the gas it contains weighs less than the atmospheric air which it displaces, the balloon will float in the air.

==3. Using a textbook of Chemistry, or a reference book of scientific tables, draw up a simple table showing the composition of air by weight and by volume.==
{|border=1 cellspacing=1 cellpadding=5 align="center"
|-
|Nitrogen|| 78%
|-
|Oxygen||21%
|-
|Argon||.93%
|-
|Carbon Dioxide||.03%
|-
|Other (including Neon, Helium, Hydrogen, Xenon, & Radon)||.04%
|}

==4. Draw up a simple table showing a comparison of the atomic number, atomic weight, and density of hydrogen, helium, nitrogen, and oxygen.==

{|border=1 cellpadding=5 align="center"
|-
!
![[w:Atomic_number|Atomic Number]]
![[w:Atomic_weight|Atomic Weight]]
![[w:Density|Density]] (g/cm³)
|-
![[w:Hydrogen|Hydrogen]]
!1
!1.008
!align="left"|0.00008988
|-
![[w:Helium|Helium]]
!2
!4.003
!align="left"|0.0001785
|-
![[w:Nitrogen|Nitrogen]]
!7
!14.01
!align="left"|0.0012506
|-
![[w:Oxygen|Oxygen]]
!8
!16.00
!align="left"|0.001429
|}

==5. Name two gases that are used in flying gas filled balloons.==
Hydrogen & Helium are both less dense than air and may be used when flying a balloon. Warm air is also used for flying balloons, since it is less dense than cold air.

*Note: Hydrogen burns violently when ignited. After the destruction of the Hindenburg, hydrogen was largely abandoned for the flying of manned balloons.

==6. Explain how heat/temperature affect the density of air, and how this applies to flying hot air balloons.==
Heat applied to a gas will cause its molecules to move farther apart. This results in fewer molecules in a balloon than the surrounding air, making it lighter. Because the balloon is lighter, it will float or rise.

==7. Explain the role of each of the following in the structure and flying of a hot air balloon.==
; a. Envelope: The outer skin of the balloon, forming the container that holds the gas.
; b. Support structure: The framework of larger balloons.
; c. Throat: The lower opening through which the hot flame is applied to heat the air.
; d. Fuel source: The fuel used to heat the air to make the balloon less dense than the surrounding air.

==8. Name two materials that may be used for the envelope of a hot air balloon, and compare the advantages each cords because of its properties.==
;Paper: Paper may be used for model hot air balloons because of ease of acquisition and low price.
;Plastic: Plastic may be used for model hot air balloons because it is water resistant, easy to work with, and easy to acquire.
;Fabric: Fabric is usually used for larger, manned balloons. The fabric is specially treated.

==9. Describe how flying balloons have served a useful function in==
=== a. Military campaigns===
Military uses include: “eyes in the sky”, observation of enemy troops and positions, delivery of explosives to enemy positions, and defensive use of entangling incoming enemy flying craft.
===b. Scientific research===
Scientific uses include instrument transport for data collecting, atmospheric studies, and aerial photography.

==10. At what time of the day do most sport balloon flights take place? Why?==
Early morning is best because the air has cooled over night making the difference of temperature inside & outside greater, thus increasing buoyancy.

==11. Describe how a pilot controls the vertical movement of==
===a. A hot air balloon===
The pilot controls the vertical movement of a hot air balloon by burning more fuel to make the air in the balloon hotter, causing the less dense air in the balloon to make it rise. Conversely, turning off the flame and allowing the air in the balloon to cool renders the air in the balloon more dense with respect to the surrounding atmosphere, causing the balloon to descend.
===b. A gas filled balloon===
Adding more of the lighter than air gas to ascend, and spilling some of the gas in order to descend varies the altitude of a helium or hydrogen filled balloon.

==12. Describe how a pilot controls the lateral or horizontal movement of a flying balloon.==
Horizontal movement of a gas filled flying balloon is entirely at the mercy of air currents. The pilot can only vary the altitude so as to get into the path of air currents, such as the jet stream. This involves careful study of charts of air currents, close attention to weather data, and a certain element of trial and error. Older airships, like the Hindenburg, had a rudder and propellers to move it so that it did not have to depend on air currents.

==13. Build to completion one model hot air balloon ( or two if working in pairs ).==

==14. Successfully launch, fly, and recover the model hot air balloon(s) which you have built.==

AY Honors/Hot Air Balloons/Answer Key

2008-11-04T00:29:52Z

MrJoe: Add transatlantic balloon name, and information about transpacific flight.

{{honor_header|Unknown|2008|Arts and Crafts|North American Division}}

{{AY patch unavailable|2008|August, 2008}}

==1. State the role each of the following played in the development of flying balloons.==
===a. Joseph Michel Montgolfier and Jacques-Etienne Montgolfier===
<gallery>
Image:Josephmontgolfier.jpg|Joseph Michel Montgolfier
Image:Jacques Étienne Montgolfier.jpg|Jacques-Etienne Montgolfier
</gallery>

Joseph-Michel Montgolfier (26 August 1740 – 26 June 1810) and Jacques-Étienne Montgolfier (6 January 1745 – 2 August 1799) were the inventors of the montgolfière, or airship. The brothers succeeded in launching the first manned ascent, carrying a young physician and an audacious army officer into the sky.

Of the two brothers, it was Joseph who first contemplated building "machines". Joseph observed laundry drying over a fire incidentally form pockets that billowed upwards. Joseph set about building a box-like chamber {{units|1 by 1 by 1.3 meters|3 by 3 by 4 ft}} out of very thin wood and covering the sides and top with lightweight taffeta cloth. Under the bottom of the box he crumpled and lit some paper. The contraption quickly lifted off its stand and collided with the ceiling. Joseph then recruited his brother to balloon building.

The two brothers then set about building a contraption 3 times larger in scale (27 times larger in volume). The lifting force was so great that they lost control of their craft on its very first test flight on 14 December 1782. The device floated nearly 2 kilometres (about 1.2 mi). It was destroyed after landing by the "indiscretion" of passersby.

===b. Jean Francois Pilatre de Rozier and Francois Laurent Marquis d'Arlandes.===
[[image:Early flight 02562u (4).jpg|thumb|200px|The first untethered balloon flight, by Rozier and the Marquis d'Arlandes on 21 November 1783.]]
Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier (30 March 1754 – 15 June 1785) was a French chemistry and physics teacher, and one of the first pioneers of aviation. His balloon crashed near Wimereux in the Pas-de-Calais during an attempt to fly across the English Channel, and he and his companion, Pierre Romain, became the first known victims of an air crash.

In June 1783, he witnessed the first balloon flight of the Montgolfier brothers. On 19 September, he assisted with the untethered flight of a sheep, a cockerel and a duck from the front courtyard of the Palace of Versailles. After a variety of tests in October, he made the first manned free flight in history on 21 November 1783, accompanied by the ambitious Marquis d'Arlandes. During the 25-minute flight using a Montgolfier hot air balloon, they traveled 12 kilometres from the Château de la Muette to the Butte-aux-Cailles, then in the outskirts of Paris, attaining an altitude of 3,000 feet.
{{clear}}

===c. [[w:Jacques_Alexandre_Cesar_Charles|Jacques Alexandre Cesar Charles]] and Nicolas Louis Robert.===
In December of 1783, these two flew a hot air balloon, filled with hydrogen, for at least 2 hours, starting from the Tuileries gardens in Paris.

===d. [[w:Ben_Abruzzo|Ben L. Abruzzo]], [[w:Maxie_Anderson|Maxie L. Anderson]], and Larry Newman===
From 11 August to 17 August, these three completed the first transatlantic balloon flight in the [[w:Double_Eagle_II|Double Eagle II]]. They began their flight from Presque Isle, Maine and ended their flight at Miserey, France.
Ben Abruzzo and Larry Newman were also pilots on the [[w:Double_Eagle_V|Double Eagle V]] which in 1981 was the first balloon to cross the Pacific Ocean.

===e. [[w:Bertrand_Piccard|Bertrand Piccard]] and [[w:Brian_Jones_(aeronaut)|Brian Jones]]===
On March 1, 1999, Bertrand Piccard and Brian Jones began the first balloon flight to circumnavigate the earth. Their flight was a success and ended on March 20, 1999. The flight took 19 days and 21 hours. The flight started in Switzerland and ended in Egypt.

==2. Cite the principle of Archimedes, and briefly describe how it applies to each of the following: ==
::Archimedes' Principle states: ''any body fully or partially submerged in a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.''
:;a. A piece of cork floating in a bowl of water.
Cork is less dense than water, and weighs less than the volume of water displaced, causing the cork to float.
:;b. A ship floating in the ocean
Ships, though made of dense materials, are shaped so that much of the interior is air. Because the weight of the ship and its cargo is less than the volume of water displaced, the ship will float.
:;c. A hot air balloon floating in the atmosphere
As long as a balloon plus the gas it contains weighs less than the atmospheric air which it displaces, the balloon will float in the air.

==3. Using a textbook of Chemistry, or a reference book of scientific tables, draw up a simple table showing the composition of air by weight and by volume.==
{|border=1 cellspacing=1 cellpadding=5 align="center"
|-
|Nitrogen|| 78%
|-
|Oxygen||21%
|-
|Argon||.93%
|-
|Carbon Dioxide||.03%
|-
|Other (including Neon, Helium, Hydrogen, Xenon, & Radon)||.04%
|}

==4. Draw up a simple table showing a comparison of the atomic number, atomic weight, and density of hydrogen, helium, nitrogen, and oxygen.==

{|border=1 cellpadding=5 align="center"
|-
!
![[w:Atomic_number|Atomic Number]]
![[w:Atomic_weight|Atomic Weight]]
![[w:Density|Density]] (g/cm³)
|-
![[w:Hydrogen|Hydrogen]]
!1
!1.008
!align="left"|0.00008988
|-
![[w:Helium|Helium]]
!2
!4.003
!align="left"|0.0001785
|-
![[w:Nitrogen|Nitrogen]]
!7
!14.01
!align="left"|0.0012506
|-
![[w:Oxygen|Oxygen]]
!8
!16.00
!align="left"|0.001429
|}

==5. Name two gases that are used in flying gas filled balloons.==
Hydrogen & Helium are both less dense than air and may be used when flying a balloon. Warm air is also used for flying balloons, since it is less dense than cold air.

*Note: Hydrogen burns violently when ignited. After the destruction of the Hindenburg, hydrogen was largely abandoned for the flying of manned balloons.

==6. Explain how heat/temperature affect the density of air, and how this applies to flying hot air balloons.==
Heat applied to a gas will cause its molecules to move farther apart. This results in fewer molecules in a balloon than the surrounding air, making it lighter. Because the balloon is lighter, it will float or rise.

==7. Explain the role of each of the following in the structure and flying of a hot air balloon.==
; a. Envelope: The outer skin of the balloon, forming the container that holds the gas.
; b. Support structure: The framework of larger balloons.
; c. Throat: The lower opening through which the hot flame is applied to heat the air.
; d. Fuel source: The fuel used to heat the air to make the balloon less dense than the surrounding air.

==8. Name two materials that may be used for the envelope of a hot air balloon, and compare the advantages each cords because of its properties.==
;Paper: Paper may be used for model hot air balloons because of ease of acquisition and low price.
;Plastic: Plastic may be used for model hot air balloons because it is water resistant, easy to work with, and easy to acquire.
;Fabric: Fabric is usually used for larger, manned balloons. The fabric is specially treated.

==9. Describe how flying balloons have served a useful function in==
=== a. Military campaigns===
Military uses include: “eyes in the sky”, observation of enemy troops and positions, delivery of explosives to enemy positions, and defensive use of entangling incoming enemy flying craft.
===b. Scientific research===
Scientific uses include instrument transport for data collecting, atmospheric studies, and aerial photography.

==10. At what time of the day do most sport balloon flights take place? Why?==
Early morning is best because the air has cooled over night making the difference of temperature inside & outside greater, thus increasing buoyancy.

==11. Describe how a pilot controls the vertical movement of==
===a. A hot air balloon===
The pilot controls the vertical movement of a hot air balloon by burning more fuel to make the air in the balloon hotter, causing the less dense air in the balloon to make it rise. Conversely, turning off the flame and allowing the air in the balloon to cool renders the air in the balloon more dense with respect to the surrounding atmosphere, causing the balloon to descend.
===b. A gas filled balloon===
Adding more of the lighter than air gas to ascend, and spilling some of the gas in order to descend varies the altitude of a helium or hydrogen filled balloon.

==12. Describe how a pilot controls the lateral or horizontal movement of a flying balloon.==
Horizontal movement of a gas filled flying balloon is entirely at the mercy of air currents. The pilot can only vary the altitude so as to get into the path of air currents, such as the jet stream. This involves careful study of charts of air currents, close attention to weather data, and a certain element of trial and error. Older airships, like the Hindenburg, had a rudder and propellers to move it so that it did not have to depend on air currents.

==13. Build to completion one model hot air balloon ( or two if working in pairs ).==

==14. Successfully launch, fly, and recover the model hot air balloon(s) which you have built.==

AY Honors/Hot Air Balloons/Answer Key

2008-10-16T00:05:16Z

MrJoe: Link to appropriate wikipedia articles

{{honor_header|Unknown|2008|Arts and Crafts|North American Division}}

{{AY patch unavailable|2008|August, 2008}}

==1. State the role each of the following played in the development of flying baloons.==
:;a. [[w:Montgolfier_brothers|Joseph Michel Montgolfier]] and [[w:Montgolfier_brothers|Jacques-Etienne Montgolfier]].
<gallery>
Image:Josephmontgolfier.jpg|Joseph Michel Montgolfier
Image:Jacques Étienne Montgolfier.jpg|Jacques-Etienne Montgolfier
</gallery>

:;b. [[w:Jean-François_Pilâtre_de_Rozier|Jean Francois Pilatre de Rozier]] and [[w:François_Laurent_d'Arlandes|Francois Laurent Marquis d'Arlandes.]]
:;c. [[w:Jacques_Alexandre_Cesar_Charles|Jacques Alexandre Cesar Charles]] and Nicolas Louis Robert.
:;d. [[w:Ben_Abruzzo|Ben L. Abruzzo]], [[w:Maxie_Anderson|Maxie L. Anderson]], and Larry Newman
:;e. [[w:Bertrand_Piccard|Bertrand Piccard]] and [[w:Brian_Jones_(aeronaut)|Brian Jones]]

==2. Cite the principle of Archimedes, and briefly describe how it applies to each of the following: ==
::Archimedes' Principle states: ''any body fully or partially submerged in a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.''
:;a. A piece of cork floating in a bowl of water.
:;b. A ship floating in the ocean
:;c. A hot air balloon floating in the atmosphere

==3. Using a textbook of Chemistry, or a reference book of scientific tables, draw up a simple table showing the composition of air by weight and by volume.==

==4. Draw up a simple table showing a comparison of the [[w:Atomic_number|atomic number]], [[w:Atomic_weight|atomic weight]], and [[w:Density|density]] of [[w:Hydrogen|hydrogen]], [[w:Helium|helium]], [[w:Nitrogen|nitrogen]], and [[w:Oxygen|oxygen]].==

==5. Name two gases that are used in flying gas filled balloons.==

==6. Explain how heat/temperature affect the density of air, and how this applies to flying hot air balloons.==

==7. Explain the role of each of the following in the structure and flying of a hot air balloon.==
:; a. Envelope
:; b. Support structure
:; c. Throat
:; d. Fuel source

==8. Name two materials that may be used for the envelope of a hot air balloon, and compare the advantages each cords because of its properties.==

==9. Describe how flying balloons have served a useful function in==
:; a. Military campaigns
:; b. Scientific research

==10. At what time of the day do most sport balloon flights take place? Why?==

==11. Describe how a pilot controls the vertical movement of==
:; a. A hot air balloon
:; b. A gas filled balloon

==12. Describe how a pilot controls the lateral or horizontal movement of a flying balloon.==

==13. Build to completion one model hot air balloon ( or two if working in pairs ).==

==14. Successfully launch, fly, and recover the model hot air balloon(s) which you have built.==

AY Honors/Hot Air Balloons/Answer Key

2008-10-15T23:25:33Z

MrJoe: spelling

{{honor_header|Unknown|2008|Arts and Crafts|North American Division}}

{{AY patch unavailable|2008|August, 2008}}

==1. State the role each of the following played in the development of flying baloons.==
:;a. [[w:Montgolfier_brothers|Joseph Michel Montgolfier]] and [[w:Montgolfier_brothers|Jacques-Etienne Montgolfier]].
<gallery>
Image:Josephmontgolfier.jpg|Joseph Michel Montgolfier
Image:Jacques Étienne Montgolfier.jpg|Jacques-Etienne Montgolfier
</gallery>

:;b. [[w:Jean-François_Pilâtre_de_Rozier|Jean Francois Pilatre de Rozier]] and [[w:François_Laurent_d'Arlandes|Francois Laurent Marquis d'Arlandes.]]
:;c. [[w:Jacques_Alexandre_Cesar_Charles|Jacques Alexandre Cesar Charles]] and Nicolas Louis Robert.
:;d. [[w:Ben_Abruzzo|Ben L. Abruzzo]], [[w:Maxie_Anderson|Maxie L. Anderson]], and Larry Newman
:;e. [[w:Bertrand_Piccard|Bertrand Piccard]] and [[w:Brian_Jones_(aeronaut)|Brian Jones]]

==2. Cite the principle of Archimedes, and briefly describe how it applies to each of the following: ==
::Archimedes' Principle states: ''any body fully or partially submerged in a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.''
:;a. A piece of cork floating in a bowl of water.
:;b. A ship floating in the ocean
:;c. A hot air balloon floating in the atmosphere

==3. Using a textbook of Chemistry, or a reference book of scientific tables, draw up a simple table showing the composition of air by weight and by volume.==

==4. Draw up a simple table showing a comparison of the atomic number, atomic weight, and density of hydrogen, helium, nitrogen, and oxygen.==

==5. Name two gases that are used in flying gas filled balloons.==

==6. Explain how heat/temperature affect the density of air, and how this applies to flying hot air balloons.==

==7. Explain the role of each of the following in the structure and flying of a hot air balloon.==
:; a. Envelope
:; b. Support structure
:; c. Throat
:; d. Fuel source

==8. Name two materials that may be used for the envelope of a hot air balloon, and compare the advantages each cords because of its properties.==

==9. Describe how flying balloons have served a useful function in==
:; a. Military campaigns
:; b. Scientific research

==10. At what time of the day do most sport balloon flights take place? Why?==

==11. Describe how a pilot controls the vertical movement of==
:; a. A hot air balloon
:; b. A gas filled balloon

==12. Describe how a pilot controls the lateral or horizontal movement of a flying balloon.==

==13. Build to completion one model hot air balloon ( or two if working in pairs ).==

==14. Successfully launch, fly, and recover the model hot air balloon(s) which you have built.==

AY Honors/Hot Air Balloons/Answer Key

2008-10-15T23:25:02Z

MrJoe: spelling

{{honor_header|Unknown|2008|Arts and Crafts|North American Division}}

{{AY patch unavailable|2008|August, 2008}}

==1. State the role each of the following played in the development of flying baloons.==
:;a. [[w:Montgolfier_brothers|Joseph Michel Montgolfier]] and [[w:Montgolfier_brothers|Jacques-Etienne Montgolfier]].
<gallery>
Image:Josephmontgolfier.jpg|Joseph Michel Montgolfier
Image:Jacques Étienne Montgolfier.jpg|Jacques-Etienne Montgolfier
</gallery>

:;b. [[w:Jean-François_Pilâtre_de_Rozier|Jean Francois Pilatre de Rozier]] and [[w:François_Laurent_d'Arlandes|Francois Laurent Marquis d'Arlandes.]]
:;c. [[w:Jacques_Alexandre_Cesar_Charles|Jacques Alexandre Cesar Charles]] and Nicolas Louis Robert.
:;d. [[w:Ben_Abruzzo|Ben L. Abruzzo]], [[w:Maxie_Anderson|Maxie L. Anderson]], and Larry Newman
:;e. [[w:Bertrand_Piccard|Bertrand Piccard]] and [[w:Brian_Jones_(aeronaut)|Brian Jones]]

==2. Cite the principle of Archimedes, and briefly describe how it applies to each of the following: ==
::Archimedes' Principle states: ''any body fully or partially submerged in a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.''
:;a. A piece of cork floating in a bowl of water.
:;b. A ship floating in the ocean
:;c. A hot air balloon floating in the atmosphere

==3. Using a textbook of Chemistry, or a reference book of scientific tables, draw up a simple table showing the composition of air by weight and by volume.==

==4. Draw up a simple able showing a comparison of the atomic slumber, atomic weight, and density of hydrogen, helium, nitrogen, and oxygen.==

==5. Name two gases that are used in flying gas filled balloons.==

==6. Explain how heat/temperature affect the density of air, and how this applies to flying hot air balloons.==

==7. Explain the role of each of the following in the structure and flying of a hot air balloon.==
:; a. Envelope
:; b. Support structure
:; c. Throat
:; d. Fuel source

==8. Name two materials that may be used for the envelope of a hot air balloon, and compare the advantages each cords because of its properties.==

==9. Describe how flying balloons have served a useful function in==
:; a. Military campaigns
:; b. Scientific research

==10. At what time of the day do most sport balloon flights take place? Why?==

==11. Describe how a pilot controls the vertical movement of==
:; a. A hot air balloon
:; b. A gas filled balloon

==12. Describe how a pilot controls the lateral or horizontal movement of a flying balloon.==

==13. Build to completion one model hot air balloon ( or two if working in pairs ).==

==14. Successfully launch, fly, and recover the model hot air balloon(s) which you have built.==

AY Honors/Hot Air Balloons/Answer Key

2008-10-15T23:23:59Z

MrJoe: Add links to the people who have them in wikipedia

{{honor_header|Unknown|2008|Arts and Crafts|North American Division}}

{{AY patch unavailable|2008|August, 2008}}

==1. State the role each of the following played in the development of flying baloons.==
:;a. [[w:Montgolfier_brothers|Joseph Michel Montgolfier]] and [[w:Montgolfier_brothers|Jacques-Etienne Montgolfier]].
<gallery>
Image:Josephmontgolfier.jpg|Joseph Michel Montgolfier
Image:Jacques Étienne Montgolfier.jpg|Jacques-Etienne Montgolfier
</gallery>

:;b. [[w:Jean-François_Pilâtre_de_Rozier|Jean Francois Pilatre de Rozier]] and [[w:François_Laurent_d'Arlandes|Francois Laurent Marquis d'Arlandes.]]
:;c. [[w:Jacques_Alexandre_Cesar_Charles|Jacques Alexandre Cesar Charles]] and Nicolas Louis Robert.
:;d. [[w:Ben_Abruzzo|Ben L. Abruzzo]], [[w:Maxie_Anderson|Maxie L. Anderson]], and Larry Newman
:;e. [[w:Bertrand_Piccard|Bertrand Piccard]] and [[w:Brian_Jones_(aeronaut)|Brian Jones]]

==2. Site the principle of Archimedes, and briefly describe how it applies to each of the following: ==
::Archimedes' Principle states: ''any body fully or partially submerged in a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.''
:;a. A piece of cork floating in a bowl of water.
:;b. A ship floating in the ocean
:;c. A hot air balloon floating in the atmosphere

==3. Using a textbook of Chemistry, or a reference book of scientific tables, draw up a simple table showing the composition of air by weight and by volume.==

==4. Draw up a simple able showing a comparison of the atomic slumber, atomic weight, and density of hydrogen, helium, nitrogen, and oxygen.==

==5. Name two gases that are used in flying gas filled balloons.==

==6. Explain how heat/temperature affect the density of air, and how this applies to flying hot air balloons.==

==7. Explain the role of each of the following in the structure and flying of a hot air balloon.==
:; a. Envelope
:; b. Support structure
:; c. Throat
:; d. Fuel source

==8. Name two materials that may be used for the envelope of a hot air balloon, and compare the advantages each cords because of its properties.==

==9. Describe how flying balloons have served a useful function in==
:; a. Military campaigns
:; b. Scientific research

==10. At what time of the day do most sport balloon flights take place? Why?==

==11. Describe how a pilot controls the vertical movement of==
:; a. A hot air balloon
:; b. A gas filled balloon

==12. Describe how a pilot controls the lateral or horizontal movement of a flying balloon.==

==13. Build to completion one model hot air balloon ( or two if working in pairs ).==

==14. Successfully launch, fly, and recover the model hot air balloon(s) which you have built.==

Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation

2008-10-01T23:29:36Z

MrJoe: Update Gold Prospecting basic and advanced.

The official answer book by Leland Davis is available through [https://www.adventsource.org/book.aspx?ID=21409 Advent''Source'']. However, it has not been updated since 1998 and it does not include answers for some of the newer honors. These newer honors are noted here. This unofficial answer book is intended to provide a second resource for honor instructors.

== Index of Recreational Honors (80) ==
{{AY_Stages}}
{| align=center style="background-color: #F7F7FF; border="0" cellspacing="4" cellpadding="4" width="100%"
|-
|width="33%" valign="top"|
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Abseiling|Abseiling]] {{division_honor|SPD}} 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Abseiling - Advanced|Abseiling - Advanced]] {{division_honor|SPD}} 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Abseiling - Instructor|Abseiling - Instructor]] {{division_honor|SPD}} 
{{stage short|100%|1 May, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Archery|Archery]] 
{{stage short|100%|1 May, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Archery - Advanced|Archery - Advanced]] 
{{stage short|100%|26 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Backpacking|Backpacking]] 
{{stage short|100%|16 May, 2008}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Basketball|Basketball]] {{division_honor|NAD}} 
{{stage short|100%|31 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Camp Craft|Camp Craft]] 
{{stage short|100%|29 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Camping Skills I|Camping Skills I]] 
{{stage short|100%|10 May, 2007}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Camping Skills II|Camping Skills II]] 
{{stage short|100%|15 Jun, 2007}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Camping Skills III|Camping Skills III]] 
{{stage short|100%|2 Apr, 2007}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Camping Skills IV|Camping Skills IV]] 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Canoe Building|Canoe Building]] {{division_honor|SPD}} 
{{stage short|100%|19 Aug, 2007}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Canoeing|Canoeing]] 
{{stage short|100%|10 Aug, 2008}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Caving|Caving]] 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Caving - Advanced|Caving - Advanced]] 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Community Water Safety|Community Water Safety]] 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Community Water Safety - Advanced|Community Water Safety - Advanced]] 
{{stage short|100%|22 Jan, 2008}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Cycling|Cycling]] 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Cycling - Advanced|Cycling - Advanced]] 
{{stage short|100%|6 Apr, 2008}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Drilling & Marching|Drilling & Marching]] 
{{stage short|00%|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Drilling & Marching - Advanced|Drilling & Marching - Advanced]] 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Drumming & Percussion|Drumming & Percussion]]{{ref|new_2006}} {{division_honor|NAD}} 
{{stage short|100%|1 Jan, 2008}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Dutch Oven Cooking|Dutch Oven Cooking]] {{fixed_ref|new_2006|1}} {{division_honor|NAD}} 
{{stage short|100%|13 May, 2007}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Fire Building & Camp Cookery|Fire Building & Camp Cookery]] 
{{stage short|100%|21 Aug, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Geocaching|Geocaching]] {{ref|new_2005}} {{division_honor|NAD}} 

|width="33%" valign="top"|
{{stage short|50%|7 Sep, 2007}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Geocaching - Advanced|Geocaching - Advanced]]{{division_honor|NAD}} 
{{stage short|75%|1 Oct, 2008}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Gold Prospecting|Gold Prospecting]]{{ref|new_2008|3}} {{division_honor|NAD}} 
{{stage short|No_work|1 Oct, 2008}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Gold Prospecting - Advanced|Gold Prospecting - Advanced]]{{fixed_ref|new_2008|3}} {{division_honor|NAD}} 
{{stage short|100%|2 Oct, 2007}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Hiking|Hiking]] 
{{stage short|00%|18 May, 2008}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Horsemanship|Horsemanship]] 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Horsemanship - Advanced|Horsemanship - Advanced]] 
{{stage short|100%|8 Jul, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Kayaking|Kayaking]] {{division_honor|SPD}} 
{{stage short|75%|10 Feb, 2008}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Kites|Kites]] 
{{stage short|100%|27 Jun, 2007}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Knot Tying|Knot Tying]] 
{{stage short|Blue Question|27 Jun, 2007}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Letterboxing|Letterboxing]] {{ref|new_2008}} {{division_honor|NAD}} 
{{stage short|Blue Question|27 Jun, 2007}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Letterboxing - Advanced|Letterboxing - Advanced]] {{ref|new_2008}} {{division_honor|NAD}} 
{{stage short|75%|24 Sep, 2008}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Map and Compass|Map and Compass]]{{division_honor|SPD}} 
{{stage short|00%|26 Jul, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Mountain Biking|Mountain Biking]] {{division_honor|NAD}} 
{{stage short|50%|25 Mar, 2007}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Navigation|Navigation]] 
{{stage short|100%|11 Oct, 2007}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Orienteering|Orienteering]] 
{{stage short|100%|7 Feb, 2007}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Outdoor Leadership|Outdoor Leadership]] 
{{stage short|25%|25 Nov, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Outdoor Leadership - Advanced|Outdoor Leadership - Advanced]] 
{{stage short|100%|26 Sep, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Physical Fitness|Physical Fitness]] 
{{stage short|75%|15 Jun, 2008}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Pioneering|Pioneering]] 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Power Boating|Power Boating]] {{division_honor|NAD}} 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Rock Climbing|Rock Climbing]] 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Rock Climbing - Advanced|Rock Climbing - Advanced]] 
{{stage short|00%|14 Nov, 2007}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Rowing|Rowing]] 
{{stage short|50%|28 July, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Sailing|Sailing]] 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Scuba Diving|Scuba Diving]] 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Scuba Diving - Advanced|Scuba Diving - Advanced]] 
{{stage short|50%|27 Jul, 2008}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Skateboarding|Skateboarding]] {{ref|skate}}{{division_honor|SPD}} 

|width="33%" valign="top"|
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Skiing - Cross Country|Skiing - Cross Country]] {{division_honor|NAD}} 
{{stage short|00%|3 Oct, 2007}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Skiing Downhill|Skiing Downhill]] 
{{stage short|25%|5 Feb, 2007}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Skin Diving|Skin Diving]] 
{{stage short|Blue_Question|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Slow-Pitch Softball|Slow-Pitch Softball]]{{fixed_ref|new_2006|1}} {{division_honor|NAD}} 
{{stage short|100%|12 Apr, 2007}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Soccer|Soccer]] {{division_honor|NAD}} 
{{stage short|00%|28 May, 2008}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Springboard Diving|Springboard Diving]] 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Swimming - Beginner|Swimming - Beginner]] 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Swimming - Advanced Beginner|Swimming - Advanced Beginner]] 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Swimming - Intermediate|Swimming - Intermediate]] 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Swimming|Swimming]] 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Swimming - Advanced|Swimming - Advanced]] 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Track & Field|Track & Field]] 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Tree Climbing|Tree Climbing]] {{division_honor|SPD}} 
{{stage short|75%|22 Jun, 2007}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Triathlon|Triathlon]] {{division_honor|SPD}} 
{{stage short|100%|22 Jun, 2007}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Triathlon - Advanced|Triathlon - Advanced]] {{division_honor|SPD}} 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Tumbling & Balancing|Tumbling & Balancing]] 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Tumbling & Balancing - Advanced|Tumbling & Balancing - Advanced]] 
{{stage short|Blue_Question|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Unicycling|Unicycling]] {{fixed_ref|new_2008|3}} {{division_honor|NAD}} 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Wakeboarding|Wakeboarding]] {{fixed_ref|new_2006|1}} {{division_honor|NAD}} 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Water Skiing|Water Skiing]] 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Water Skiing - Advanced|Water Skiing - Advanced]] 
{{stage short|50%|25 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Wilderness Leadership|Wilderness Leadership]] 
{{stage short|00%|27 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Wilderness Leadership - Advanced|Wilderness Leadership - Advanced]] 
{{stage short|100%|4 Jul, 2007}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Wilderness Living|Wilderness Living]] 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Wind Surfing|Wind Surfing]] 
{{stage short|100%|19 Jul, 2007}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Winter Camping|Winter Camping]] 
|}
{{ay_honor_divisions_legend}}
__NOTOC__

==Index of {{SUBPAGENAME}} Honors by Skill Level==
===Skill Level 1 {{SUBPAGENAME}} Honors===
<DynamicPageList>
category=Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/{{SUBPAGENAME}}
category=Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Skill Level 1
order=ascending
namespace=0
</DynamicPageList>
===Skill Level 2 {{SUBPAGENAME}} Honors===
<DynamicPageList>
category=Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/{{SUBPAGENAME}}
category=Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Skill Level 2
order=ascending
namespace=0
</DynamicPageList>
===Skill Level 3 {{SUBPAGENAME}} Honors===
<DynamicPageList>
category=Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/{{SUBPAGENAME}}
category=Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Skill Level 3
order=ascending
namespace=0
</DynamicPageList>
==Notes==
#{{note|drum}} The ''Drumming & Percussion, Drumming & Percussion - Advanced, Dutch Oven Cooking, Slow-Pitch Softball, and Wakeboarding'' honors were introduced in 2006, and therefore have no entry in the official answer books.
#{{note|geo}} The ''Geocaching'' honor was introduced in 2005, so it has no entry in the official Answer Book.
#{{note|new_2008}} The ''Gold Prospecting'', ''Letterboxing'', and ''Unicycling'' honors were introduced in 2008, and therefore have no entry in the official answer books.
#{{note|skate}} The Skateboarding honor was voted to not be used in North America because of insurance regulations.

[[Category:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]

AY Honors/Gold Prospecting - Advanced/Answer Key

2008-10-01T23:22:49Z

MrJoe: Add official requirements.

{{honor_header|2|2008|Recreation|North American Division}}

==1. Have the Gold Prospecting Honor==
==2. Describe the following types of prospecting equipment.==
;a. Sluice box
;b. Rocker box
;c. High banker
;d. Bucket dredge
;e. Suction dredge
;f. Dry washer
;g. Trommel
;h. Beach box
;i. Metal detector
;j. Jig
;k. Shaker table
==3. What government requirements, if any, are there to use the equipment listed in number 2 above? ==
==4. What are the advantages or disadvantages to the equipment listed in number 2 above?==
==5. Use at least two of the types of equipment listed in number 2 above to prospect for gold.==
==6. Pathfinders are supposed to take only pictures and leave only footprints, but prospecting requires moving rocks and digging large holes. How can you reconcile these two conflicting requirements?==

AY Honors/Gold Prospecting/Answer Key

2008-10-01T22:57:01Z

MrJoe: Remove new honor warning

{{honor_header|1|2008|Recreation|North American Division}}

==1. Create a list of equipment used for gold panning. Describe each item and tell what it is used for. The list should include at least the following.==
;a. Gold Pan
:A gold pan is typically a round pan with a flat bottom and conical sides. Modern gold pans are made from plastic and have riffles formed into one side. Gold panning is the simplest way to prospect for placer or flood gold.
:A plastic gold pan with built in riffles is your best choice since it is lighter and won’t rust. Green or blue pans are somewhat easier to use than black pans since it is easier to see the black sands against green or blue than it is to see them against a black pan. A pan with a wide bottom will be easier to use when separating the gold from the black sands than a pan with a narrow bottom. For beginners stick with a basic pan and leave the pans with multiple sets of riffles, or non-round shapes alone. A pan full of material is heavy so for pathfinders an 8-10 inch pan is probably best. For adults start out with a 12-14 inch pan. Pans are available in sizes up to 17 inches but a 17 inch pan is very heavy when it is full.
;b. Classifier
:A classifier is a screen that is used to classify material to be panned. Classifying material is the process of separating different sizes of material. Usually a classifier is used to remove large rocks prior to panning. Classifiers are available with screens having holes from 1/2 inch down to 1/100th of an inch in size and are identified by the size of the holes in fractions of an inch. So a number 2 classifier would have 1/2 inch holes while a number 100 would have holes that were 1/100th of an inch in size. For panning the usual sizes of classifier used are 2, 4, and 8.
:A cheap classifier that is very useful for classifying wet or damp material can be made using a roll of 1/2 or 1/4 inch hardware cloth. Take the hardware cloth and cut out a section large enough to make a cylinder that just fits inside your bucket with about an inch of overlap at the seam. Using the wire that held the roll of hardware cloth together, sew up the seam. Cut a number of 2-3 inch slits spaced evenly along one edge of the cylinder. Cut out a piece of hardware cloth that will just fit inside of the cylinder and secure it to the bottom of the cylinder by bending the flaps formed by cutting the slits under the bottom. Sew the bottom piece to the flaps using more of the wire from the hardware cloth. You should now have a basket that fits inside your bucket. You will want to wrap the top edge with something like cotton rope to protect your hands. To use the classifier fill the bucket with water and then swish the classifier full of material in the water. The small material will be rinsed out into the bucket and the remaining material can be discarded.

;c. Snuffer Bottle
:A snuffer or sucker bottle is a plastic squeezable bottle used to suck up gold or black sands from the bottom of the gold pan. The snuffer bottle has a straw through the opening. This straw lets you squeeze the bottle without worrying about the gold inside squirting out through the opening. If you have a large enough snuffer bottle or if you have more than one, consider just sucking up all the black sands and taking them home to cleanup later. You will be able to pan much more material if you don’t stop to clean out just the gold from each pan.
:For cleaning out the gold from the black sands a small plastic eyedropper is useful to suck up just the gold and drop it in a vial.
:Glass vials are very nice for displaying gold, but they will break if dropped on a rock, use plastic vials when in the field.
;d. Shovel
:A shovel is used to dig up the material to be panned.
;e. Pick
:A pick is used to breakup hard packed material.
;f. Bucket
:A bucket is used to haul material from the location it is being dug out of the ground, to a location where it can be panned. 5 gallon buckets are popular because they are readily available and most classifiers are designed to fit on top of them. However 5 gallon buckets have one big disadvantage, when they are full they are very heavy, and they are almost always filled too full. 3 gallon buckets with the same size opening as a 5 gallon bucket are a much better choice.
;g. Trowel
:A trowel is used to dig material from locations where a large shovel will not fit.
;h. Pry bar
:A pry bar is used to move large rocks to allow you to get to the material underneath them. Other items that might be used for this are pulleys, winches, or come alongs.
;i. Rock hammer
:A rock hammer can be used to break up rocks so that they can be more easily moved.
;j. Crevice tool
:A crevice tool is a thin piece of metal with a narrow scoop on one end. It is used to dig material out of very narrow crevices between rocks. Purpose made crevice tools can be purchased, but you may have something around the house that will work just as well. Likely candidates are old flat screw drivers, hub cap removal tools from cars you no longer own, or just a piece of metal rod with one end pounded flat.
;k. Drinking water
:Prospecting is usually hard work, often in the hot sun. Staying hydrated is very important, and you almost certainly shouldn't drink the water from the river or stream you are panning in, so you should always have drinking water available.
;l. Other possible items.
:Other items you might want with you include
:*Sun screen
:*Food
:*A canoe yoke and short straps. (This makes a wonderful bucket carrier.)
:*Dry change of clothes.
:*Small towel
:*Water shoes or waders
:*Backpack, to carry all your stuff in.
:*Knee pad
:*Etc, etc, etc...

==2. Define the following:==
;a. Pay dirt
:Pay dirt is material containing high concentrations of gold.
;b. Quartz
:Quartz is the second most common mineral on earth. It is a crystal made of silicon dioxide and is often found near with gold. Finding quartz does not mean that you will also find gold, but if you find gold there will almost always be quartz nearby. Lode gold is usually found mixed in or around quartz veins.
[[Image:Pyrite Fools Gold Macro 1.JPG|thumb|Pyrite]]
;c. Pyrite
:Pyrite is often referred to as fool’s gold, there are other minerals that are also mistaken for gold but pyrite is by far the most common. Pyrite is composed of iron sulfide, and can easily be distinguished from gold because it is much less dense and it leaves a black streak if rubbed across the bottom of a gold pan.
;d. Blond sands
:Any of the light colored material washed out of the pan while panning. Blond sands usually have a [[w:Specific_gravity|specific gravity]] of 2 – 2.5, that is they are about twice as heavy as water.
;e. Black sands
:Black sands are mostly made of magnetite and hematite. Black sands have a [[w:Specific_gravity|specific gravity]] of about 5.
;f. Placer
:Placer gold is the gold that has been eroded from the mother lode and washed down into the streams and rivers.
;g. Lode
:Lode gold is gold that is still in the rock before it has been eroded and washed into a stream or river. A group of lodes or veins of gold is often referred to as a mother lode. One of the best-known mother lodes is the California Mother Lode. This is a zone one to four miles wide and 120 miles long in the Sierra Nevada Mountains of California. The individual gold deposits within the mother lode are gold bearing quartz veins up to 50 feet thick and a few thousand feet long.
;h. Nugget
:A nugget is a naturally occurring chunk of gold. Nuggets can be picked up with your fingers and are usually at least a gram or more in weight. The largest nugget ever found was the [[w:Welcome_Stranger|“Welcome Stranger”]] and weighed 2316 troy ounces, it was found in Moliagul, Victoria, Australia on February 5, 1869. Smaller pieces of gold that can still be picked up with your fingers are called pickers.
;i. Flake
:A flake is a piece of gold that is flat and cannot be easily picked up with your fingers.
;j. Dust
:Dust or flour gold, are tiny pieces of gold too small to be called flakes.
;k. [[w:Specific_gravity|Specific gravity]]
:[[w:Specific_gravity|Specific gravity]] is the ratio of the density a given material to the density of water. So a material with a [[w:Specific_gravity|specific gravity]] of 2 is twice as dense as water.
;l. Wet and Dry panning
:Panning is using a gold pan to separate gold from the surrounding material. This is accomplished by suspending the material in the pan in a fluid. Once the material is suspended in the fluid the denser material settles to the bottom of the pan. The fluid can be anything but the most common is water or air. Wet panning is panning using water as the fluid, dry panning is using air as the fluid. Wet panning is much more efficient that dry panning because gold is much denser than the surrounding material compared to water, but compared to air all the material is relatively dense.
;m. [[w:Mercury (element)|Mercury]] (historical use) '''DO NOT USE TODAY'''
:[[w:Mercury (element)|Mercury]] is a toxic metal that is liquid at room temperature. Since it is toxic it should be avoided, however it has often been used to pull fine gold out of black sands. When mixed with black sands containing gold, the [[w:Mercury (element)|mercury]] will amalgamate with the gold and you will end up with a lump of [[w:Mercury (element)|mercury]] containing all of the gold.
;n. [[w:Troy_weight#Troy_pound|Troy pound]]
:One [[w:Troy_weight#Troy_pound|troy pound]] equals .82 regular or [[w:Avoirdupois|“avoirdupois”]] [[w:Pound_(mass)#Avoirdupois_pound|pounds]], and is made up of [[w:Troy_weight#Troy_pound|troy pound]] 12 [[w:Troy_weight#Troy_ounce|troy ounces]].
;o. [[w:Troy_weight#Troy_ounce|Troy ounce]]
:The [[w:Troy_weight#Troy_ounce|troy ounce]] is the standard measure of gold and other precious metals. One [[w:Troy_weight#Troy_ounce|troy ounce]] equals 1.1 regular or [[w:Avoirdupois|“avoirdupois”]] [[w:Ounce#International_avoirdupois_ounce|ounces]].
;p. [[w:Pennyweight|Pennyweight (dwt)]]
:A [[w:Pennyweight|pennyweight]] is 1/20th of a troy ounce.
;q. [[w:Grain (mass)|Grain]]
:A [[w:Grain (mass)|grain]] is 1/24th of a [[w:Pennyweight|pennyweight]].
;r. Gold fever
:What people get that causes them to keep hunting for gold. Extreme cases of "Gold Fever" have been known to cause people to do seemingly insane things such as hauling a ton of equipment over the 33 mile [[w:Chilkoot Trail|Chilkoot Trail]] during the [[w:Klondike Gold Rush|Klondike Gold Rush]].

==3. What are the following identifying characteristics of Gold.==
;a. [[w:Specific_gravity|Specific gravity]]
:The [[w:Specific_gravity|specific gravity]] of gold is 19.3. This is almost twice the [[w:Specific_gravity|specific gravity]] of lead, which is 11.3 and almost 4 times the [[w:Specific_gravity|specific gravity]] of black sands at around 5.
;b. Color of streak
:When rubbed against the bottom of a gold pan a piece of gold will leave a yellow streak.
;c. Color
:Gold is one of only two metals that in their raw state are not silver colored. Gold in its natural state is a yellow color. The other non-silver colored metal is copper.

==4. Where are some good places on a river or stream to look for gold.==
:Gold is heavy so it is only moved by large amounts of fast water, like in the winter when a river is high or flooding. The gold will drop out of the stream wherever the water slows down, or where there is something to cause an area of low pressure in the stream. So look for gold on the downstream side of large rocks or boulders or in cracks that the gold may have dropped into and been wedged in place. Look on the inside part of bends in the stream. Imagine what the river would be like when it is full and look for gold where the water would have a chance to slow down.

==5. Make a timeline containing at least 15 items about the history of gold prospecting from 1600 until the present day, including the following [[w:Gold_rush|rushes]]: [[w:California_Gold_Rush|California Gold Rush]], [[w:Klondike_Gold_Rush|Klondike/Yukon Gold Rush]], [[w:Witwatersrand_Gold_Rush|Witwatersrand Gold Rush]], and the [[w:Victorian_Gold_Rush|Victorian Gold Rush]].==
:The timeline should also include any local gold rushes. For each gold rush mentioned the time line should specify when it started and how long it lasted, as well as how many people were involved and the amount of gold recovered. Other items in the time line should include things like major technological developments in prospecting, examples of this include the development and subsequent ban on [[w:Hydraulic_mining|hydraulic mining]] in California, the development of square set timbers in the [[w:Comstock_Lode|Comstock silver mine]], or the development of [[w:Gold_dredge|gold dredges]].

==6. Learn about gold panning by doing one of the following:==
;a. Do some gold panning. (preferred).
:Most states in the U.S. have areas where gold can be located. The best way to meet this requirement is to go to an area and actually dig up the material and pan it there. It would be best for the instructor to scout the area first and find a location where there is at least some gold available, ideally there should be at least a few flakes or specs of gold in each pan.
:Another way to meet this requirement is for the instructor to get some gold bearing material and then have the students pan it in some type of trough, the plastic pans available at your local hardware store for mixing mortar work well. You can also build a panning trough out of 2x10 lumber with a thin plywood bottom and line it with plastic.
:You can also purchase black sand concentrates from various locations on the Internet. These can be mixed with sand and gravel from a local river or stream bank and then used for panning.
:When panning don’t fill the pan completely full. It is easier, especially for beginners to start with a pan that is 1/2 to 3/4 full. You may also want to drop a small lead weight like a fishing weight into the pan. If the lead is still in the pan when the pan is down to just black sands then you can be sure that the gold is still there also.
;b. Practice panning using flattened lead or tungsten shot mixed with sand (preferably from a river bank).
:Get some sand and gravel, from a river or stream bank if possible, and mix in a specific number of flattened lead or tungsten shot. Tungsten shot would be the best choice for two reasons if you can find it. First unlike lead, tungsten is non toxic, and second, while lead at 11.3 is only about half the [[w:Specific_gravity|specific gravity]] of gold, tungsten is almost identical at 19.62.

==7. Look up the following verses in the Bible and discuss them in relation to prospecting for gold.==

===a. Matthew 13:44-46===
{{Bible verse
| book = Matthew
| chapter = 13
| verse = 44-46
| text =
44The kingdom of heaven is like treasure hidden in a field, which someone found and hid; then in his joy he goes and sells all that he has and buys that field. 45Again, the kingdom of heaven is like a merchant in search of fine pearls; 46on finding one pearl of great value, he went and sold all that he had and bought it.
}}

===b. Matthew 6:19-21===
{{Bible verse
| book = Matthew
| chapter = 6
| verse = 19-21
| text =
19Lay not up for yourselves treasures upon earth, where moth and rust doth corrupt, and where thieves break through and steal. 20But lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven, where neither moth nor rust doth corrupt, and where thieves do not break through nor steal. 21For where your treasure is, there will your heart be also.
}}

AY Honors/Gold Prospecting/Answer Key

2008-10-01T22:55:38Z

MrJoe: Update requirement 5 to the official wording and wikify.

{{honor_header|1|2008|Recreation|North American Division}}
{{New honor warning|2008}}

==1. Create a list of equipment used for gold panning. Describe each item and tell what it is used for. The list should include at least the following.==
;a. Gold Pan
:A gold pan is typically a round pan with a flat bottom and conical sides. Modern gold pans are made from plastic and have riffles formed into one side. Gold panning is the simplest way to prospect for placer or flood gold.
:A plastic gold pan with built in riffles is your best choice since it is lighter and won’t rust. Green or blue pans are somewhat easier to use than black pans since it is easier to see the black sands against green or blue than it is to see them against a black pan. A pan with a wide bottom will be easier to use when separating the gold from the black sands than a pan with a narrow bottom. For beginners stick with a basic pan and leave the pans with multiple sets of riffles, or non-round shapes alone. A pan full of material is heavy so for pathfinders an 8-10 inch pan is probably best. For adults start out with a 12-14 inch pan. Pans are available in sizes up to 17 inches but a 17 inch pan is very heavy when it is full.
;b. Classifier
:A classifier is a screen that is used to classify material to be panned. Classifying material is the process of separating different sizes of material. Usually a classifier is used to remove large rocks prior to panning. Classifiers are available with screens having holes from 1/2 inch down to 1/100th of an inch in size and are identified by the size of the holes in fractions of an inch. So a number 2 classifier would have 1/2 inch holes while a number 100 would have holes that were 1/100th of an inch in size. For panning the usual sizes of classifier used are 2, 4, and 8.
:A cheap classifier that is very useful for classifying wet or damp material can be made using a roll of 1/2 or 1/4 inch hardware cloth. Take the hardware cloth and cut out a section large enough to make a cylinder that just fits inside your bucket with about an inch of overlap at the seam. Using the wire that held the roll of hardware cloth together, sew up the seam. Cut a number of 2-3 inch slits spaced evenly along one edge of the cylinder. Cut out a piece of hardware cloth that will just fit inside of the cylinder and secure it to the bottom of the cylinder by bending the flaps formed by cutting the slits under the bottom. Sew the bottom piece to the flaps using more of the wire from the hardware cloth. You should now have a basket that fits inside your bucket. You will want to wrap the top edge with something like cotton rope to protect your hands. To use the classifier fill the bucket with water and then swish the classifier full of material in the water. The small material will be rinsed out into the bucket and the remaining material can be discarded.

;c. Snuffer Bottle
:A snuffer or sucker bottle is a plastic squeezable bottle used to suck up gold or black sands from the bottom of the gold pan. The snuffer bottle has a straw through the opening. This straw lets you squeeze the bottle without worrying about the gold inside squirting out through the opening. If you have a large enough snuffer bottle or if you have more than one, consider just sucking up all the black sands and taking them home to cleanup later. You will be able to pan much more material if you don’t stop to clean out just the gold from each pan.
:For cleaning out the gold from the black sands a small plastic eyedropper is useful to suck up just the gold and drop it in a vial.
:Glass vials are very nice for displaying gold, but they will break if dropped on a rock, use plastic vials when in the field.
;d. Shovel
:A shovel is used to dig up the material to be panned.
;e. Pick
:A pick is used to breakup hard packed material.
;f. Bucket
:A bucket is used to haul material from the location it is being dug out of the ground, to a location where it can be panned. 5 gallon buckets are popular because they are readily available and most classifiers are designed to fit on top of them. However 5 gallon buckets have one big disadvantage, when they are full they are very heavy, and they are almost always filled too full. 3 gallon buckets with the same size opening as a 5 gallon bucket are a much better choice.
;g. Trowel
:A trowel is used to dig material from locations where a large shovel will not fit.
;h. Pry bar
:A pry bar is used to move large rocks to allow you to get to the material underneath them. Other items that might be used for this are pulleys, winches, or come alongs.
;i. Rock hammer
:A rock hammer can be used to break up rocks so that they can be more easily moved.
;j. Crevice tool
:A crevice tool is a thin piece of metal with a narrow scoop on one end. It is used to dig material out of very narrow crevices between rocks. Purpose made crevice tools can be purchased, but you may have something around the house that will work just as well. Likely candidates are old flat screw drivers, hub cap removal tools from cars you no longer own, or just a piece of metal rod with one end pounded flat.
;k. Drinking water
:Prospecting is usually hard work, often in the hot sun. Staying hydrated is very important, and you almost certainly shouldn't drink the water from the river or stream you are panning in, so you should always have drinking water available.
;l. Other possible items.
:Other items you might want with you include
:*Sun screen
:*Food
:*A canoe yoke and short straps. (This makes a wonderful bucket carrier.)
:*Dry change of clothes.
:*Small towel
:*Water shoes or waders
:*Backpack, to carry all your stuff in.
:*Knee pad
:*Etc, etc, etc...

==2. Define the following:==
;a. Pay dirt
:Pay dirt is material containing high concentrations of gold.
;b. Quartz
:Quartz is the second most common mineral on earth. It is a crystal made of silicon dioxide and is often found near with gold. Finding quartz does not mean that you will also find gold, but if you find gold there will almost always be quartz nearby. Lode gold is usually found mixed in or around quartz veins.
[[Image:Pyrite Fools Gold Macro 1.JPG|thumb|Pyrite]]
;c. Pyrite
:Pyrite is often referred to as fool’s gold, there are other minerals that are also mistaken for gold but pyrite is by far the most common. Pyrite is composed of iron sulfide, and can easily be distinguished from gold because it is much less dense and it leaves a black streak if rubbed across the bottom of a gold pan.
;d. Blond sands
:Any of the light colored material washed out of the pan while panning. Blond sands usually have a [[w:Specific_gravity|specific gravity]] of 2 – 2.5, that is they are about twice as heavy as water.
;e. Black sands
:Black sands are mostly made of magnetite and hematite. Black sands have a [[w:Specific_gravity|specific gravity]] of about 5.
;f. Placer
:Placer gold is the gold that has been eroded from the mother lode and washed down into the streams and rivers.
;g. Lode
:Lode gold is gold that is still in the rock before it has been eroded and washed into a stream or river. A group of lodes or veins of gold is often referred to as a mother lode. One of the best-known mother lodes is the California Mother Lode. This is a zone one to four miles wide and 120 miles long in the Sierra Nevada Mountains of California. The individual gold deposits within the mother lode are gold bearing quartz veins up to 50 feet thick and a few thousand feet long.
;h. Nugget
:A nugget is a naturally occurring chunk of gold. Nuggets can be picked up with your fingers and are usually at least a gram or more in weight. The largest nugget ever found was the [[w:Welcome_Stranger|“Welcome Stranger”]] and weighed 2316 troy ounces, it was found in Moliagul, Victoria, Australia on February 5, 1869. Smaller pieces of gold that can still be picked up with your fingers are called pickers.
;i. Flake
:A flake is a piece of gold that is flat and cannot be easily picked up with your fingers.
;j. Dust
:Dust or flour gold, are tiny pieces of gold too small to be called flakes.
;k. [[w:Specific_gravity|Specific gravity]]
:[[w:Specific_gravity|Specific gravity]] is the ratio of the density a given material to the density of water. So a material with a [[w:Specific_gravity|specific gravity]] of 2 is twice as dense as water.
;l. Wet and Dry panning
:Panning is using a gold pan to separate gold from the surrounding material. This is accomplished by suspending the material in the pan in a fluid. Once the material is suspended in the fluid the denser material settles to the bottom of the pan. The fluid can be anything but the most common is water or air. Wet panning is panning using water as the fluid, dry panning is using air as the fluid. Wet panning is much more efficient that dry panning because gold is much denser than the surrounding material compared to water, but compared to air all the material is relatively dense.
;m. [[w:Mercury (element)|Mercury]] (historical use) '''DO NOT USE TODAY'''
:[[w:Mercury (element)|Mercury]] is a toxic metal that is liquid at room temperature. Since it is toxic it should be avoided, however it has often been used to pull fine gold out of black sands. When mixed with black sands containing gold, the [[w:Mercury (element)|mercury]] will amalgamate with the gold and you will end up with a lump of [[w:Mercury (element)|mercury]] containing all of the gold.
;n. [[w:Troy_weight#Troy_pound|Troy pound]]
:One [[w:Troy_weight#Troy_pound|troy pound]] equals .82 regular or [[w:Avoirdupois|“avoirdupois”]] [[w:Pound_(mass)#Avoirdupois_pound|pounds]], and is made up of [[w:Troy_weight#Troy_pound|troy pound]] 12 [[w:Troy_weight#Troy_ounce|troy ounces]].
;o. [[w:Troy_weight#Troy_ounce|Troy ounce]]
:The [[w:Troy_weight#Troy_ounce|troy ounce]] is the standard measure of gold and other precious metals. One [[w:Troy_weight#Troy_ounce|troy ounce]] equals 1.1 regular or [[w:Avoirdupois|“avoirdupois”]] [[w:Ounce#International_avoirdupois_ounce|ounces]].
;p. [[w:Pennyweight|Pennyweight (dwt)]]
:A [[w:Pennyweight|pennyweight]] is 1/20th of a troy ounce.
;q. [[w:Grain (mass)|Grain]]
:A [[w:Grain (mass)|grain]] is 1/24th of a [[w:Pennyweight|pennyweight]].
;r. Gold fever
:What people get that causes them to keep hunting for gold. Extreme cases of "Gold Fever" have been known to cause people to do seemingly insane things such as hauling a ton of equipment over the 33 mile [[w:Chilkoot Trail|Chilkoot Trail]] during the [[w:Klondike Gold Rush|Klondike Gold Rush]].

==3. What are the following identifying characteristics of Gold.==
;a. [[w:Specific_gravity|Specific gravity]]
:The [[w:Specific_gravity|specific gravity]] of gold is 19.3. This is almost twice the [[w:Specific_gravity|specific gravity]] of lead, which is 11.3 and almost 4 times the [[w:Specific_gravity|specific gravity]] of black sands at around 5.
;b. Color of streak
:When rubbed against the bottom of a gold pan a piece of gold will leave a yellow streak.
;c. Color
:Gold is one of only two metals that in their raw state are not silver colored. Gold in its natural state is a yellow color. The other non-silver colored metal is copper.

==4. Where are some good places on a river or stream to look for gold.==
:Gold is heavy so it is only moved by large amounts of fast water, like in the winter when a river is high or flooding. The gold will drop out of the stream wherever the water slows down, or where there is something to cause an area of low pressure in the stream. So look for gold on the downstream side of large rocks or boulders or in cracks that the gold may have dropped into and been wedged in place. Look on the inside part of bends in the stream. Imagine what the river would be like when it is full and look for gold where the water would have a chance to slow down.

==5. Make a timeline containing at least 15 items about the history of gold prospecting from 1600 until the present day, including the following [[w:Gold_rush|rushes]]: [[w:California_Gold_Rush|California Gold Rush]], [[w:Klondike_Gold_Rush|Klondike/Yukon Gold Rush]], [[w:Witwatersrand_Gold_Rush|Witwatersrand Gold Rush]], and the [[w:Victorian_Gold_Rush|Victorian Gold Rush]].==
:The timeline should also include any local gold rushes. For each gold rush mentioned the time line should specify when it started and how long it lasted, as well as how many people were involved and the amount of gold recovered. Other items in the time line should include things like major technological developments in prospecting, examples of this include the development and subsequent ban on [[w:Hydraulic_mining|hydraulic mining]] in California, the development of square set timbers in the [[w:Comstock_Lode|Comstock silver mine]], or the development of [[w:Gold_dredge|gold dredges]].

==6. Learn about gold panning by doing one of the following:==
;a. Do some gold panning. (preferred).
:Most states in the U.S. have areas where gold can be located. The best way to meet this requirement is to go to an area and actually dig up the material and pan it there. It would be best for the instructor to scout the area first and find a location where there is at least some gold available, ideally there should be at least a few flakes or specs of gold in each pan.
:Another way to meet this requirement is for the instructor to get some gold bearing material and then have the students pan it in some type of trough, the plastic pans available at your local hardware store for mixing mortar work well. You can also build a panning trough out of 2x10 lumber with a thin plywood bottom and line it with plastic.
:You can also purchase black sand concentrates from various locations on the Internet. These can be mixed with sand and gravel from a local river or stream bank and then used for panning.
:When panning don’t fill the pan completely full. It is easier, especially for beginners to start with a pan that is 1/2 to 3/4 full. You may also want to drop a small lead weight like a fishing weight into the pan. If the lead is still in the pan when the pan is down to just black sands then you can be sure that the gold is still there also.
;b. Practice panning using flattened lead or tungsten shot mixed with sand (preferably from a river bank).
:Get some sand and gravel, from a river or stream bank if possible, and mix in a specific number of flattened lead or tungsten shot. Tungsten shot would be the best choice for two reasons if you can find it. First unlike lead, tungsten is non toxic, and second, while lead at 11.3 is only about half the [[w:Specific_gravity|specific gravity]] of gold, tungsten is almost identical at 19.62.

==7. Look up the following verses in the Bible and discuss them in relation to prospecting for gold.==

===a. Matthew 13:44-46===
{{Bible verse
| book = Matthew
| chapter = 13
| verse = 44-46
| text =
44The kingdom of heaven is like treasure hidden in a field, which someone found and hid; then in his joy he goes and sells all that he has and buys that field. 45Again, the kingdom of heaven is like a merchant in search of fine pearls; 46on finding one pearl of great value, he went and sold all that he had and bought it.
}}

===b. Matthew 6:19-21===
{{Bible verse
| book = Matthew
| chapter = 6
| verse = 19-21
| text =
19Lay not up for yourselves treasures upon earth, where moth and rust doth corrupt, and where thieves break through and steal. 20But lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven, where neither moth nor rust doth corrupt, and where thieves do not break through nor steal. 21For where your treasure is, there will your heart be also.
}}

AY Honors/Gold Prospecting/Answer Key

2008-10-01T22:30:55Z

MrJoe: Update requirement 2 to the official wording

{{honor_header|1|2008|Recreation|North American Division}}
{{New honor warning|2008}}

==1. Create a list of equipment used for gold panning. Describe each item and tell what it is used for. The list should include at least the following.==
;a. Gold Pan
:A gold pan is typically a round pan with a flat bottom and conical sides. Modern gold pans are made from plastic and have riffles formed into one side. Gold panning is the simplest way to prospect for placer or flood gold.
:A plastic gold pan with built in riffles is your best choice since it is lighter and won’t rust. Green or blue pans are somewhat easier to use than black pans since it is easier to see the black sands against green or blue than it is to see them against a black pan. A pan with a wide bottom will be easier to use when separating the gold from the black sands than a pan with a narrow bottom. For beginners stick with a basic pan and leave the pans with multiple sets of riffles, or non-round shapes alone. A pan full of material is heavy so for pathfinders an 8-10 inch pan is probably best. For adults start out with a 12-14 inch pan. Pans are available in sizes up to 17 inches but a 17 inch pan is very heavy when it is full.
;b. Classifier
:A classifier is a screen that is used to classify material to be panned. Classifying material is the process of separating different sizes of material. Usually a classifier is used to remove large rocks prior to panning. Classifiers are available with screens having holes from 1/2 inch down to 1/100th of an inch in size and are identified by the size of the holes in fractions of an inch. So a number 2 classifier would have 1/2 inch holes while a number 100 would have holes that were 1/100th of an inch in size. For panning the usual sizes of classifier used are 2, 4, and 8.
:A cheap classifier that is very useful for classifying wet or damp material can be made using a roll of 1/2 or 1/4 inch hardware cloth. Take the hardware cloth and cut out a section large enough to make a cylinder that just fits inside your bucket with about an inch of overlap at the seam. Using the wire that held the roll of hardware cloth together, sew up the seam. Cut a number of 2-3 inch slits spaced evenly along one edge of the cylinder. Cut out a piece of hardware cloth that will just fit inside of the cylinder and secure it to the bottom of the cylinder by bending the flaps formed by cutting the slits under the bottom. Sew the bottom piece to the flaps using more of the wire from the hardware cloth. You should now have a basket that fits inside your bucket. You will want to wrap the top edge with something like cotton rope to protect your hands. To use the classifier fill the bucket with water and then swish the classifier full of material in the water. The small material will be rinsed out into the bucket and the remaining material can be discarded.

;c. Snuffer Bottle
:A snuffer or sucker bottle is a plastic squeezable bottle used to suck up gold or black sands from the bottom of the gold pan. The snuffer bottle has a straw through the opening. This straw lets you squeeze the bottle without worrying about the gold inside squirting out through the opening. If you have a large enough snuffer bottle or if you have more than one, consider just sucking up all the black sands and taking them home to cleanup later. You will be able to pan much more material if you don’t stop to clean out just the gold from each pan.
:For cleaning out the gold from the black sands a small plastic eyedropper is useful to suck up just the gold and drop it in a vial.
:Glass vials are very nice for displaying gold, but they will break if dropped on a rock, use plastic vials when in the field.
;d. Shovel
:A shovel is used to dig up the material to be panned.
;e. Pick
:A pick is used to breakup hard packed material.
;f. Bucket
:A bucket is used to haul material from the location it is being dug out of the ground, to a location where it can be panned. 5 gallon buckets are popular because they are readily available and most classifiers are designed to fit on top of them. However 5 gallon buckets have one big disadvantage, when they are full they are very heavy, and they are almost always filled too full. 3 gallon buckets with the same size opening as a 5 gallon bucket are a much better choice.
;g. Trowel
:A trowel is used to dig material from locations where a large shovel will not fit.
;h. Pry bar
:A pry bar is used to move large rocks to allow you to get to the material underneath them. Other items that might be used for this are pulleys, winches, or come alongs.
;i. Rock hammer
:A rock hammer can be used to break up rocks so that they can be more easily moved.
;j. Crevice tool
:A crevice tool is a thin piece of metal with a narrow scoop on one end. It is used to dig material out of very narrow crevices between rocks. Purpose made crevice tools can be purchased, but you may have something around the house that will work just as well. Likely candidates are old flat screw drivers, hub cap removal tools from cars you no longer own, or just a piece of metal rod with one end pounded flat.
;k. Drinking water
:Prospecting is usually hard work, often in the hot sun. Staying hydrated is very important, and you almost certainly shouldn't drink the water from the river or stream you are panning in, so you should always have drinking water available.
;l. Other possible items.
:Other items you might want with you include
:*Sun screen
:*Food
:*A canoe yoke and short straps. (This makes a wonderful bucket carrier.)
:*Dry change of clothes.
:*Small towel
:*Water shoes or waders
:*Backpack, to carry all your stuff in.
:*Knee pad
:*Etc, etc, etc...

==2. Define the following:==
;a. Pay dirt
:Pay dirt is material containing high concentrations of gold.
;b. Quartz
:Quartz is the second most common mineral on earth. It is a crystal made of silicon dioxide and is often found near with gold. Finding quartz does not mean that you will also find gold, but if you find gold there will almost always be quartz nearby. Lode gold is usually found mixed in or around quartz veins.
[[Image:Pyrite Fools Gold Macro 1.JPG|thumb|Pyrite]]
;c. Pyrite
:Pyrite is often referred to as fool’s gold, there are other minerals that are also mistaken for gold but pyrite is by far the most common. Pyrite is composed of iron sulfide, and can easily be distinguished from gold because it is much less dense and it leaves a black streak if rubbed across the bottom of a gold pan.
;d. Blond sands
:Any of the light colored material washed out of the pan while panning. Blond sands usually have a [[w:Specific_gravity|specific gravity]] of 2 – 2.5, that is they are about twice as heavy as water.
;e. Black sands
:Black sands are mostly made of magnetite and hematite. Black sands have a [[w:Specific_gravity|specific gravity]] of about 5.
;f. Placer
:Placer gold is the gold that has been eroded from the mother lode and washed down into the streams and rivers.
;g. Lode
:Lode gold is gold that is still in the rock before it has been eroded and washed into a stream or river. A group of lodes or veins of gold is often referred to as a mother lode. One of the best-known mother lodes is the California Mother Lode. This is a zone one to four miles wide and 120 miles long in the Sierra Nevada Mountains of California. The individual gold deposits within the mother lode are gold bearing quartz veins up to 50 feet thick and a few thousand feet long.
;h. Nugget
:A nugget is a naturally occurring chunk of gold. Nuggets can be picked up with your fingers and are usually at least a gram or more in weight. The largest nugget ever found was the [[w:Welcome_Stranger|“Welcome Stranger”]] and weighed 2316 troy ounces, it was found in Moliagul, Victoria, Australia on February 5, 1869. Smaller pieces of gold that can still be picked up with your fingers are called pickers.
;i. Flake
:A flake is a piece of gold that is flat and cannot be easily picked up with your fingers.
;j. Dust
:Dust or flour gold, are tiny pieces of gold too small to be called flakes.
;k. [[w:Specific_gravity|Specific gravity]]
:[[w:Specific_gravity|Specific gravity]] is the ratio of the density a given material to the density of water. So a material with a [[w:Specific_gravity|specific gravity]] of 2 is twice as dense as water.
;l. Wet and Dry panning
:Panning is using a gold pan to separate gold from the surrounding material. This is accomplished by suspending the material in the pan in a fluid. Once the material is suspended in the fluid the denser material settles to the bottom of the pan. The fluid can be anything but the most common is water or air. Wet panning is panning using water as the fluid, dry panning is using air as the fluid. Wet panning is much more efficient that dry panning because gold is much denser than the surrounding material compared to water, but compared to air all the material is relatively dense.
;m. [[w:Mercury (element)|Mercury]] (historical use) '''DO NOT USE TODAY'''
:[[w:Mercury (element)|Mercury]] is a toxic metal that is liquid at room temperature. Since it is toxic it should be avoided, however it has often been used to pull fine gold out of black sands. When mixed with black sands containing gold, the [[w:Mercury (element)|mercury]] will amalgamate with the gold and you will end up with a lump of [[w:Mercury (element)|mercury]] containing all of the gold.
;n. [[w:Troy_weight#Troy_pound|Troy pound]]
:One [[w:Troy_weight#Troy_pound|troy pound]] equals .82 regular or [[w:Avoirdupois|“avoirdupois”]] [[w:Pound_(mass)#Avoirdupois_pound|pounds]], and is made up of [[w:Troy_weight#Troy_pound|troy pound]] 12 [[w:Troy_weight#Troy_ounce|troy ounces]].
;o. [[w:Troy_weight#Troy_ounce|Troy ounce]]
:The [[w:Troy_weight#Troy_ounce|troy ounce]] is the standard measure of gold and other precious metals. One [[w:Troy_weight#Troy_ounce|troy ounce]] equals 1.1 regular or [[w:Avoirdupois|“avoirdupois”]] [[w:Ounce#International_avoirdupois_ounce|ounces]].
;p. [[w:Pennyweight|Pennyweight (dwt)]]
:A [[w:Pennyweight|pennyweight]] is 1/20th of a troy ounce.
;q. [[w:Grain (mass)|Grain]]
:A [[w:Grain (mass)|grain]] is 1/24th of a [[w:Pennyweight|pennyweight]].
;r. Gold fever
:What people get that causes them to keep hunting for gold. Extreme cases of "Gold Fever" have been known to cause people to do seemingly insane things such as hauling a ton of equipment over the 33 mile [[w:Chilkoot Trail|Chilkoot Trail]] during the [[w:Klondike Gold Rush|Klondike Gold Rush]].

==3. What are the following identifying characteristics of Gold.==
;a. [[w:Specific_gravity|Specific gravity]]
:The [[w:Specific_gravity|specific gravity]] of gold is 19.3. This is almost twice the [[w:Specific_gravity|specific gravity]] of lead, which is 11.3 and almost 4 times the [[w:Specific_gravity|specific gravity]] of black sands at around 5.
;b. Color of streak
:When rubbed against the bottom of a gold pan a piece of gold will leave a yellow streak.
;c. Color
:Gold is one of only two metals that in their raw state are not silver colored. Gold in its natural state is a yellow color. The other non-silver colored metal is copper.

==4. Where are some good places on a river or stream to look for gold.==
:Gold is heavy so it is only moved by large amounts of fast water, like in the winter when a river is high or flooding. The gold will drop out of the stream wherever the water slows down, or where there is something to cause an area of low pressure in the stream. So look for gold on the downstream side of large rocks or boulders or in cracks that the gold may have dropped into and been wedged in place. Look on the inside part of bends in the stream. Imagine what the river would be like when it is full and look for gold where the water would have a chance to slow down.

==5. Make a timeline containing at least 15 items about the history of gold prospecting from 1600 until the present day.==
:The timeline should probably include the “major” gold rushes, as well as any local gold rushes, and specify when they started and how long they lasted, as well as how many people were involved and the amount of gold recovered. Other items in the time line should include things like major technological developments in prospecting, examples of this include the development and subsequent ban on hydraulic mining in California, the development of square set timbers in the Comstock silver mine, or the development of steam powered bucket dredges.

==6. Learn about gold panning by doing one of the following:==
;a. Do some gold panning. (preferred).
:Most states in the U.S. have areas where gold can be located. The best way to meet this requirement is to go to an area and actually dig up the material and pan it there. It would be best for the instructor to scout the area first and find a location where there is at least some gold available, ideally there should be at least a few flakes or specs of gold in each pan.
:Another way to meet this requirement is for the instructor to get some gold bearing material and then have the students pan it in some type of trough, the plastic pans available at your local hardware store for mixing mortar work well. You can also build a panning trough out of 2x10 lumber with a thin plywood bottom and line it with plastic.
:You can also purchase black sand concentrates from various locations on the Internet. These can be mixed with sand and gravel from a local river or stream bank and then used for panning.
:When panning don’t fill the pan completely full. It is easier, especially for beginners to start with a pan that is 1/2 to 3/4 full. You may also want to drop a small lead weight like a fishing weight into the pan. If the lead is still in the pan when the pan is down to just black sands then you can be sure that the gold is still there also.
;b. Practice panning using flattened lead or tungsten shot mixed with sand (preferably from a river bank).
:Get some sand and gravel, from a river or stream bank if possible, and mix in a specific number of flattened lead or tungsten shot. Tungsten shot would be the best choice for two reasons if you can find it. First unlike lead, tungsten is non toxic, and second, while lead at 11.3 is only about half the [[w:Specific_gravity|specific gravity]] of gold, tungsten is almost identical at 19.62.

==7. Look up the following verses in the Bible and discuss them in relation to prospecting for gold.==

===a. Matthew 13:44-46===
{{Bible verse
| book = Matthew
| chapter = 13
| verse = 44-46
| text =
44The kingdom of heaven is like treasure hidden in a field, which someone found and hid; then in his joy he goes and sells all that he has and buys that field. 45Again, the kingdom of heaven is like a merchant in search of fine pearls; 46on finding one pearl of great value, he went and sold all that he had and bought it.
}}

===b. Matthew 6:19-21===
{{Bible verse
| book = Matthew
| chapter = 6
| verse = 19-21
| text =
19Lay not up for yourselves treasures upon earth, where moth and rust doth corrupt, and where thieves break through and steal. 20But lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven, where neither moth nor rust doth corrupt, and where thieves do not break through nor steal. 21For where your treasure is, there will your heart be also.
}}

AY Honors/Gold Prospecting/Answer Key

2008-09-05T19:45:04Z

MrJoe: Set Skill Level

{{honor_header|1|2008|Recreation|North American Division}}
{{New honor warning|2008}}

==1. Create a list of equipment used for gold panning. Describe each item and tell what it is used for. The list should include at least the following.==
;a. Gold Pan
:A gold pan is typically a round pan with a flat bottom and conical sides. Modern gold pans are made from plastic and have riffles formed into one side. Gold panning is the simplest way to prospect for placer or flood gold.
:A plastic gold pan with built in riffles is your best choice since it is lighter and won’t rust. Green or blue pans are somewhat easier to use than black pans since it is easier to see the black sands against green or blue than it is to see them against a black pan. A pan with a wide bottom will be easier to use when separating the gold from the black sands than a pan with a narrow bottom. For beginners stick with a basic pan and leave the pans with multiple sets of riffles, or non-round shapes alone. A pan full of material is heavy so for pathfinders an 8-10 inch pan is probably best. For adults start out with a 12-14 inch pan. Pans are available in sizes up to 17 inches but a 17 inch pan is very heavy when it is full.
;b. Classifier
:A classifier is a screen that is used to classify material to be panned. Classifying material is the process of separating different sizes of material. Usually a classifier is used to remove large rocks prior to panning. Classifiers are available with screens having holes from 1/2 inch down to 1/100th of an inch in size and are identified by the size of the holes in fractions of an inch. So a number 2 classifier would have 1/2 inch holes while a number 100 would have holes that were 1/100th of an inch in size. For panning the usual sizes of classifier used are 2, 4, and 8.
:A cheap classifier that is very useful for classifying wet or damp material can be made using a roll of 1/2 or 1/4 inch hardware cloth. Take the hardware cloth and cut out a section large enough to make a cylinder that just fits inside your bucket with about an inch of overlap at the seam. Using the wire that held the roll of hardware cloth together, sew up the seam. Cut a number of 2-3 inch slits spaced evenly along one edge of the cylinder. Cut out a piece of hardware cloth that will just fit inside of the cylinder and secure it to the bottom of the cylinder by bending the flaps formed by cutting the slits under the bottom. Sew the bottom piece to the flaps using more of the wire from the hardware cloth. You should now have a basket that fits inside your bucket. You will want to wrap the top edge with something like cotton rope to protect your hands. To use the classifier fill the bucket with water and then swish the classifier full of material in the water. The small material will be rinsed out into the bucket and the remaining material can be discarded.

;c. Snuffer Bottle
:A snuffer or sucker bottle is a plastic squeezable bottle used to suck up gold or black sands from the bottom of the gold pan. The snuffer bottle has a straw through the opening. This straw lets you squeeze the bottle without worrying about the gold inside squirting out through the opening. If you have a large enough snuffer bottle or if you have more than one, consider just sucking up all the black sands and taking them home to cleanup later. You will be able to pan much more material if you don’t stop to clean out just the gold from each pan.
:For cleaning out the gold from the black sands a small plastic eyedropper is useful to suck up just the gold and drop it in a vial.
:Glass vials are very nice for displaying gold, but they will break if dropped on a rock, use plastic vials when in the field.
;d. Shovel
:A shovel is used to dig up the material to be panned.
;e. Pick
:A pick is used to breakup hard packed material.
;f. Bucket
:A bucket is used to haul material from the location it is being dug out of the ground, to a location where it can be panned. 5 gallon buckets are popular because they are readily available and most classifiers are designed to fit on top of them. However 5 gallon buckets have one big disadvantage, when they are full they are very heavy, and they are almost always filled too full. 3 gallon buckets with the same size opening as a 5 gallon bucket are a much better choice.
;g. Trowel
:A trowel is used to dig material from locations where a large shovel will not fit.
;h. Pry bar
:A pry bar is used to move large rocks to allow you to get to the material underneath them. Other items that might be used for this are pulleys, winches, or come alongs.
;i. Rock hammer
:A rock hammer can be used to break up rocks so that they can be more easily moved.
;j. Crevice tool
:A crevice tool is a thin piece of metal with a narrow scoop on one end. It is used to dig material out of very narrow crevices between rocks. Purpose made crevice tools can be purchased, but you may have something around the house that will work just as well. Likely candidates are old flat screw drivers, hub cap removal tools from cars you no longer own, or just a piece of metal rod with one end pounded flat.
;k. Drinking water
:Prospecting is usually hard work, often in the hot sun. Staying hydrated is very important, and you almost certainly shouldn't drink the water from the river or stream you are panning in, so you should always have drinking water available.
;l. Other possible items.
:Other items you might want with you include
:*Sun screen
:*Food
:*A canoe yoke and short straps. (This makes a wonderful bucket carrier.)
:*Dry change of clothes.
:*Small towel
:*Water shoes or waders
:*Backpack, to carry all your stuff in.
:*Knee pad
:*Etc, etc, etc...

==2. Define the following:==
;a. Pay dirt
:Pay dirt is material containing high concentrations of gold.
;b. Quartz
:Quartz is the second most common mineral on earth. It is a crystal made of silicon dioxide and is often found near with gold. Finding quartz does not mean that you will also find gold, but if you find gold there will almost always be quartz nearby. Lode gold is usually found mixed in or around quartz veins.
[[Image:Pyrite Fools Gold Macro 1.JPG|thumb|Pyrite]]
;c. Pyrite
:Pyrite is often referred to as fool’s gold, there are other minerals that are also mistaken for gold but pyrite is by far the most common. Pyrite is composed of iron sulfide, and can easily be distinguished from gold because it is much less dense and it leaves a black streak if rubbed across the bottom of a gold pan.
;d. Blond sands
:Any of the light colored material washed out of the pan while panning. Blond sands usually have a [[w:Specific_gravity|specific gravity]] of 2 – 2.5, that is they are about twice as heavy as water.
;e. Black sands
:Black sands are mostly made of magnetite and hematite. Black sands have a [[w:Specific_gravity|specific gravity]] of about 5.
;f. Placer
:Placer gold is the gold that has been eroded from the mother lode and washed down into the streams and rivers.
;g. Lode
:Lode gold is gold that is still in the rock before it has been eroded and washed into a stream or river. A group of lodes or veins of gold is often referred to as a mother lode. One of the best-known mother lodes is the California Mother Lode. This is a zone one to four miles wide and 120 miles long in the Sierra Nevada Mountains of California. The individual gold deposits within the mother lode are gold bearing quartz veins up to 50 feet thick and a few thousand feet long.
;h. Nugget
:A nugget is a naturally occurring chunk of gold. Nuggets can be picked up with your fingers and are usually at least a gram or more in weight. The largest nugget ever found was the [[w:Welcome_Stranger|“Welcome Stranger”]] and weighed 2316 troy ounces, it was found in Moliagul, Victoria, Australia on February 5, 1869. Smaller pieces of gold that can still be picked up with your fingers are called pickers.
;i. Flake
:A flake is a piece of gold that is flat and cannot be easily picked up with your fingers.
;j. Dust
:Dust or flour gold, are tiny pieces of gold too small to be called flakes.
;k. [[w:Specific_gravity|Specific gravity]]
:[[w:Specific_gravity|Specific gravity]] is the ratio of the density a given material to the density of water. So a material with a [[w:Specific_gravity|specific gravity]] of 2 is twice as dense as water.
;l. Wet and Dry panning
:Panning is using a gold pan to separate gold from the surrounding material. This is accomplished by suspending the material in the pan in a fluid. Once the material is suspended in the fluid the denser material settles to the bottom of the pan. The fluid can be anything but the most common is water or air. Wet panning is panning using water as the fluid, dry panning is using air as the fluid. Wet panning is much more efficient that dry panning because gold is much denser than the surrounding material compared to water, but compared to air all the material is relatively dense.
;m. [[w:Mercury (element)|Mercury]]
:[[w:Mercury (element)|Mercury]] is a toxic metal that is liquid at room temperature. Since it is toxic it should be avoided, however it has often been used to pull fine gold out of black sands. When mixed with black sands containing gold, the [[w:Mercury (element)|mercury]] will amalgamate with the gold and you will end up with a lump of [[w:Mercury (element)|mercury]] containing all of the gold.
;n. [[w:Troy_weight#Troy_pound|Troy pound]]
:One [[w:Troy_weight#Troy_pound|troy pound]] equals .82 regular or [[w:Avoirdupois|“avoirdupois”]] [[w:Pound_(mass)#Avoirdupois_pound|pounds]], and is made up of [[w:Troy_weight#Troy_pound|troy pound]] 12 [[w:Troy_weight#Troy_ounce|troy ounces]].
;o. [[w:Troy_weight#Troy_ounce|Troy ounce]]
:The [[w:Troy_weight#Troy_ounce|troy ounce]] is the standard measure of gold and other precious metals. One [[w:Troy_weight#Troy_ounce|troy ounce]] equals 1.1 regular or [[w:Avoirdupois|“avoirdupois”]] [[w:Ounce#International_avoirdupois_ounce|ounces]].
;p. [[w:Pennyweight|Pennyweight (dwt)]]
:A [[w:Pennyweight|pennyweight]] is 1/20th of a troy ounce.
;q. [[w:Grain (mass)|Grain]]
:A [[w:Grain (mass)|grain]] is 1/24th of a [[w:Pennyweight|pennyweight]].
;r. Gold fever
:What people get that causes them to keep hunting for gold. Extreme cases of "Gold Fever" have been known to cause people to do seemingly insane things such as hauling a ton of equipment over the 33 mile [[w:Chilkoot Trail|Chilkoot Trail]] during the [[w:Klondike Gold Rush|Klondike Gold Rush]].

==3. What are the following identifying characteristics of Gold.==
;a. [[w:Specific_gravity|Specific gravity]]
:The [[w:Specific_gravity|specific gravity]] of gold is 19.3. This is almost twice the [[w:Specific_gravity|specific gravity]] of lead, which is 11.3 and almost 4 times the [[w:Specific_gravity|specific gravity]] of black sands at around 5.
;b. Color of streak
:When rubbed against the bottom of a gold pan a piece of gold will leave a yellow streak.
;c. Color
:Gold is one of only two metals that in their raw state are not silver colored. Gold in its natural state is a yellow color. The other non-silver colored metal is copper.

==4. Where are some good places on a river or stream to look for gold.==
:Gold is heavy so it is only moved by large amounts of fast water, like in the winter when a river is high or flooding. The gold will drop out of the stream wherever the water slows down, or where there is something to cause an area of low pressure in the stream. So look for gold on the downstream side of large rocks or boulders or in cracks that the gold may have dropped into and been wedged in place. Look on the inside part of bends in the stream. Imagine what the river would be like when it is full and look for gold where the water would have a chance to slow down.

==5. Make a timeline containing at least 15 items about the history of gold prospecting from 1600 until the present day.==
:The timeline should probably include the “major” gold rushes, as well as any local gold rushes, and specify when they started and how long they lasted, as well as how many people were involved and the amount of gold recovered. Other items in the time line should include things like major technological developments in prospecting, examples of this include the development and subsequent ban on hydraulic mining in California, the development of square set timbers in the Comstock silver mine, or the development of steam powered bucket dredges.

==6. Learn about gold panning by doing one of the following:==
;a. Do some gold panning. (preferred).
:Most states in the U.S. have areas where gold can be located. The best way to meet this requirement is to go to an area and actually dig up the material and pan it there. It would be best for the instructor to scout the area first and find a location where there is at least some gold available, ideally there should be at least a few flakes or specs of gold in each pan.
:Another way to meet this requirement is for the instructor to get some gold bearing material and then have the students pan it in some type of trough, the plastic pans available at your local hardware store for mixing mortar work well. You can also build a panning trough out of 2x10 lumber with a thin plywood bottom and line it with plastic.
:You can also purchase black sand concentrates from various locations on the Internet. These can be mixed with sand and gravel from a local river or stream bank and then used for panning.
:When panning don’t fill the pan completely full. It is easier, especially for beginners to start with a pan that is 1/2 to 3/4 full. You may also want to drop a small lead weight like a fishing weight into the pan. If the lead is still in the pan when the pan is down to just black sands then you can be sure that the gold is still there also.
;b. Practice panning using flattened lead or tungsten shot mixed with sand (preferably from a river bank).
:Get some sand and gravel, from a river or stream bank if possible, and mix in a specific number of flattened lead or tungsten shot. Tungsten shot would be the best choice for two reasons if you can find it. First unlike lead, tungsten is non toxic, and second, while lead at 11.3 is only about half the [[w:Specific_gravity|specific gravity]] of gold, tungsten is almost identical at 19.62.

==7. Look up the following verses in the Bible and discuss them in relation to prospecting for gold.==

===a. Matthew 13:44-46===
{{Bible verse
| book = Matthew
| chapter = 13
| verse = 44-46
| text =
44The kingdom of heaven is like treasure hidden in a field, which someone found and hid; then in his joy he goes and sells all that he has and buys that field. 45Again, the kingdom of heaven is like a merchant in search of fine pearls; 46on finding one pearl of great value, he went and sold all that he had and bought it.
}}

===b. Matthew 6:19-21===
{{Bible verse
| book = Matthew
| chapter = 6
| verse = 19-21
| text =
19Lay not up for yourselves treasures upon earth, where moth and rust doth corrupt, and where thieves break through and steal. 20But lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven, where neither moth nor rust doth corrupt, and where thieves do not break through nor steal. 21For where your treasure is, there will your heart be also.
}}

AY Honors/Gold Prospecting/Answer Key

2008-03-20T16:10:03Z

MrJoe: Caps

{{honor_header|Unknown|2008|Recreation|North American Division}}
{{New honor warning|2008}}

==1. Create a list of equipment used for gold panning. Describe each item and tell what it is used for. The list should include at least the following.==
;a. Gold Pan
:A gold pan is typically a round pan with a flat bottom and conical sides. Modern gold pans are made from plastic and have riffles formed into one side. Gold panning is the simplest way to prospect for placer or flood gold.
:A plastic gold pan with built in riffles is your best choice since it is lighter and won’t rust. Green or blue pans are somewhat easier to use than black pans since it is easier to see the black sands against green or blue than it is to see them against a black pan. A pan with a wide bottom will be easier to use when separating the gold from the black sands than a pan with a narrow bottom. For beginners stick with a basic pan and leave the pans with multiple sets of riffles, or non-round shapes alone. A pan full of material is heavy so for pathfinders an 8-10 inch pan is probably best. For adults start out with a 12-14 inch pan. Pans are available in sizes up to 17 inches but a 17 inch pan is very heavy when it is full.
;b. Classifier
:A classifier is a screen that is used to classify material to be panned. Classifying material is the process of separating different sizes of material. Usually a classifier is used to remove large rocks prior to panning. Classifiers are available with screens having holes from 1/2 inch down to 1/100th of an inch in size and are identified by the size of the holes in fractions of an inch. So a number 2 classifier would have 1/2 inch holes while a number 100 would have holes that were 1/100th of an inch in size. For panning the usual sizes of classifier used are 2, 4, and 8.
:A cheap classifier that is very useful for classifying wet or damp material can be made using a roll of 1/2 or 1/4 inch hardware cloth. Take the hardware cloth and cut out a section large enough to make a cylinder that just fits inside your bucket with about an inch of overlap at the seam. Using the wire that held the roll of hardware cloth together, sew up the seam. Cut a number of 2-3 inch slits spaced evenly along one edge of the cylinder. Cut out a piece of hardware cloth that will just fit inside of the cylinder and secure it to the bottom of the cylinder by bending the flaps formed by cutting the slits under the bottom. Sew the bottom piece to the flaps using more of the wire from the hardware cloth. You should now have a basket that fits inside your bucket. You will want to wrap the top edge with something like cotton rope to protect your hands. To use the classifier fill the bucket with water and then swish the classifier full of material in the water. The small material will be rinsed out into the bucket and the remaining material can be discarded.

;c. Snuffer Bottle
:A snuffer or sucker bottle is a plastic squeezable bottle used to suck up gold or black sands from the bottom of the gold pan. The snuffer bottle has a straw through the opening. This straw lets you squeeze the bottle without worrying about the gold inside squirting out through the opening. If you have a large enough snuffer bottle or if you have more than one, consider just sucking up all the black sands and taking them home to cleanup later. You will be able to pan much more material if you don’t stop to clean out just the gold from each pan.
:For cleaning out the gold from the black sands a small plastic eyedropper is useful to suck up just the gold and drop it in a vial.
:Glass vials are very nice for displaying gold, but they will break if dropped on a rock, use plastic vials when in the field.
;d. Shovel
:A shovel is used to dig up the material to be panned.
;e. Pick
:A pick is used to breakup hard packed material.
;f. Bucket
:A bucket is used to haul material from the location it is being dug out of the ground, to a location where it can be panned. 5 gallon buckets are popular because they are readily available and most classifiers are designed to fit on top of them. However 5 gallon buckets have one big disadvantage, when they are full they are very heavy, and they are almost always filled too full. 3 gallon buckets with the same size opening as a 5 gallon bucket are a much better choice.
;g. Trowel
:A trowel is used to dig material from locations where a large shovel will not fit.
;h. Pry bar
:A pry bar is used to move large rocks to allow you to get to the material underneath them. Other items that might be used for this are pulleys, winches, or come alongs.
;i. Rock hammer
:A rock hammer can be used to break up rocks so that they can be more easily moved.
;j. Crevice tool
:A crevice tool is a thin piece of metal with a narrow scoop on one end. It is used to dig material out of very narrow crevices between rocks. Purpose made crevice tools can be purchased, but you may have something around the house that will work just as well. Likely candidates are old flat screw drivers, hub cap removal tools from cars you no longer own, or just a piece of metal rod with one end pounded flat.
;k. Drinking water
:Prospecting is usually hard work, often in the hot sun. Staying hydrated is very important, and you almost certainly shouldn't drink the water from the river or stream you are panning in, so you should always have drinking water available.
;l. Other possible items.
:Other items you might want with you include
:*Sun screen
:*Food
:*A canoe yoke and short straps. (This makes a wonderful bucket carrier.)
:*Dry change of clothes.
:*Small towel
:*Water shoes or waders
:*Backpack, to carry all your stuff in.
:*Knee pad
:*Etc, etc, etc...

==2. Define the following:==
;a. Pay dirt
:Pay dirt is material containing high concentrations of gold.
;b. Quartz
:Quartz is the second most common mineral on earth. It is a crystal made of silicon dioxide and is often found near with gold. Finding quartz does not mean that you will also find gold, but if you find gold there will almost always be quartz nearby. Lode gold is usually found mixed in or around quartz veins.
[[Image:Pyrite Fools Gold Macro 1.JPG|thumb|Pyrite]]
;c. Pyrite
:Pyrite is often referred to as fool’s gold, there are other minerals that are also mistaken for gold but pyrite is by far the most common. Pyrite is composed of iron sulfide, and can easily be distinguished from gold because it is much less dense and it leaves a black streak if rubbed across the bottom of a gold pan.
;d. Blond sands
:Any of the light colored material washed out of the pan while panning. Blond sands usually have a [[w:Specific_gravity|specific gravity]] of 2 – 2.5, that is they are about twice as heavy as water.
;e. Black sands
:Black sands are mostly made of magnetite and hematite. Black sands have a [[w:Specific_gravity|specific gravity]] of about 5.
;f. Placer
:Placer gold is the gold that has been eroded from the mother lode and washed down into the streams and rivers.
;g. Lode
:Lode gold is gold that is still in the rock before it has been eroded and washed into a stream or river. A group of lodes or veins of gold is often referred to as a mother lode. One of the best-known mother lodes is the California Mother Lode. This is a zone one to four miles wide and 120 miles long in the Sierra Nevada Mountains of California. The individual gold deposits within the mother lode are gold bearing quartz veins up to 50 feet thick and a few thousand feet long.
;h. Nugget
:A nugget is a naturally occurring chunk of gold. Nuggets can be picked up with your fingers and are usually at least a gram or more in weight. The largest nugget ever found was the [[w:Welcome_Stranger|“Welcome Stranger”]] and weighed 2316 troy ounces, it was found in Moliagul, Victoria, Australia on February 5, 1869. Smaller pieces of gold that can still be picked up with your fingers are called pickers.
;i. Flake
:A flake is a piece of gold that is flat and cannot be easily picked up with your fingers.
;j. Dust
:Dust or flour gold, are tiny pieces of gold too small to be called flakes.
;k. [[w:Specific_gravity|Specific gravity]]
:[[w:Specific_gravity|Specific gravity]] is the ratio of the density a given material to the density of water. So a material with a [[w:Specific_gravity|specific gravity]] of 2 is twice as dense as water.
;l. Wet and Dry panning
:Panning is using a gold pan to separate gold from the surrounding material. This is accomplished by suspending the material in the pan in a fluid. Once the material is suspended in the fluid the denser material settles to the bottom of the pan. The fluid can be anything but the most common is water or air. Wet panning is panning using water as the fluid, dry panning is using air as the fluid. Wet panning is much more efficient that dry panning because gold is much denser than the surrounding material compared to water, but compared to air all the material is relatively dense.
;m. [[w:Mercury (element)|Mercury]]
:[[w:Mercury (element)|Mercury]] is a toxic metal that is liquid at room temperature. Since it is toxic it should be avoided, however it has often been used to pull fine gold out of black sands. When mixed with black sands containing gold, the [[w:Mercury (element)|mercury]] will amalgamate with the gold and you will end up with a lump of [[w:Mercury (element)|mercury]] containing all of the gold.
;n. [[w:Troy_weight#Troy_pound|Troy pound]]
:One [[w:Troy_weight#Troy_pound|troy pound]] equals .82 regular or [[w:Avoirdupois|“avoirdupois”]] [[w:Pound_(mass)#Avoirdupois_pound|pounds]], and is made up of [[w:Troy_weight#Troy_pound|troy pound]] 12 [[w:Troy_weight#Troy_ounce|troy ounces]].
;o. [[w:Troy_weight#Troy_ounce|Troy ounce]]
:The [[w:Troy_weight#Troy_ounce|troy ounce]] is the standard measure of gold and other precious metals. One [[w:Troy_weight#Troy_ounce|troy ounce]] equals 1.1 regular or [[w:Avoirdupois|“avoirdupois”]] [[w:Ounce#International_avoirdupois_ounce|ounces]].
;p. [[w:Pennyweight|Pennyweight (dwt)]]
:A [[w:Pennyweight|pennyweight]] is 1/20th of a troy ounce.
;q. [[w:Grain (mass)|Grain]]
:A [[w:Grain (mass)|grain]] is 1/24th of a [[w:Pennyweight|pennyweight]].
;r. Gold fever
:What people get that causes them to keep hunting for gold. Extreme cases of "Gold Fever" have been known to cause people to do seemingly insane things such as hauling a ton of equipment over the 33 mile [[w:Chilkoot Trail|Chilkoot Trail]] during the [[w:Klondike Gold Rush|Klondike Gold Rush]].

==3. What are the following identifying characteristics of Gold.==
;a. [[w:Specific_gravity|Specific gravity]]
:The [[w:Specific_gravity|specific gravity]] of gold is 19.3. This is almost twice the [[w:Specific_gravity|specific gravity]] of lead, which is 11.3 and almost 4 times the [[w:Specific_gravity|specific gravity]] of black sands at around 5.
;b. Color of streak
:When rubbed against the bottom of a gold pan a piece of gold will leave a yellow streak.
;c. Color
:Gold is one of only two metals that in their raw state are not silver colored. Gold in its natural state is a yellow color. The other non-silver colored metal is copper.

==4. Where are some good places on a river or stream to look for gold.==
:Gold is heavy so it is only moved by large amounts of fast water, like in the winter when a river is high or flooding. The gold will drop out of the stream wherever the water slows down, or where there is something to cause an area of low pressure in the stream. So look for gold on the downstream side of large rocks or boulders or in cracks that the gold may have dropped into and been wedged in place. Look on the inside part of bends in the stream. Imagine what the river would be like when it is full and look for gold where the water would have a chance to slow down.

==5. Make a timeline containing at least 15 items about the history of gold prospecting from 1600 until the present day.==
:The timeline should probably include the “major” gold rushes, as well as any local gold rushes, and specify when they started and how long they lasted, as well as how many people were involved and the amount of gold recovered. Other items in the time line should include things like major technological developments in prospecting, examples of this include the development and subsequent ban on hydraulic mining in California, the development of square set timbers in the Comstock silver mine, or the development of steam powered bucket dredges.

==6. Learn about gold panning by doing one of the following:==
;a. Do some gold panning. (preferred).
:Most states in the U.S. have areas where gold can be located. The best way to meet this requirement is to go to an area and actually dig up the material and pan it there. It would be best for the instructor to scout the area first and find a location where there is at least some gold available, ideally there should be at least a few flakes or specs of gold in each pan.
:Another way to meet this requirement is for the instructor to get some gold bearing material and then have the students pan it in some type of trough, the plastic pans available at your local hardware store for mixing mortar work well. You can also build a panning trough out of 2x10 lumber with a thin plywood bottom and line it with plastic.
:You can also purchase black sand concentrates from various locations on the Internet. These can be mixed with sand and gravel from a local river or stream bank and then used for panning.
:When panning don’t fill the pan completely full. It is easier, especially for beginners to start with a pan that is 1/2 to 3/4 full. You may also want to drop a small lead weight like a fishing weight into the pan. If the lead is still in the pan when the pan is down to just black sands then you can be sure that the gold is still there also.
;b. Practice panning using flattened lead or tungsten shot mixed with sand (preferably from a river bank).
:Get some sand and gravel, from a river or stream bank if possible, and mix in a specific number of flattened lead or tungsten shot. Tungsten shot would be the best choice for two reasons if you can find it. First unlike lead, tungsten is non toxic, and second, while lead at 11.3 is only about half the [[w:Specific_gravity|specific gravity]] of gold, tungsten is almost identical at 19.62.

==7. Look up the following verses in the Bible and discuss them in relation to prospecting for gold.==
;a. Matthew 13<nowiki>:</nowiki>44-46
:44The kingdom of heaven is like treasure hidden in a field, which someone found and hid; then in his joy he goes and sells all that he has and buys that field. 45Again, the kingdom of heaven is like a merchant in search of fine pearls; 46on finding one pearl of great value, he went and sold all that he had and bought it.
;b. Matthew 6<nowiki>:</nowiki>19-21
:19Lay not up for yourselves treasures upon earth, where moth and rust doth corrupt, and where thieves break through and steal. 20But lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven, where neither moth nor rust doth corrupt, and where thieves do not break through nor steal. 21For where your treasure is, there will your heart be also.

Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation

2008-03-20T08:18:27Z

MrJoe: Update %complete for Gold Prospecting (basic)

The official answer book by Leland Davis is available through [https://www.adventsource.org/book.aspx?ID=21409 Advent''Source'']. However, it has not been updated since 1998 and it does not include answers for some of the newer honors. These newer honors are noted here. This unofficial answer book is intended to provide a second resource for honor instructors.

== Index of Recreational Honors (79) ==
{{AY_Stages}}
{| align=center style="background-color: #F7F7FF; border="0" cellspacing="4" cellpadding="4"
|-
|valign="top"|
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Abseiling|Abseiling]] {{division_honor|SPD}} 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Abseiling - Advanced|Abseiling - Advanced]] {{division_honor|SPD}} 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Abseiling - Instructor|Abseiling - Instructor]] {{division_honor|SPD}} 
{{stage short|100%|1 May, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Archery|Archery]] 
{{stage short|100%|1 May, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Archery - Advanced|Archery - Advanced]] 
{{stage short|100%|26 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Backpacking|Backpacking]] 
{{stage short|50%|16 Mar, 2008}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Basketball|Basketball]] {{division_honor|NAD}} 
{{stage short|100%|31 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Camp Craft|Camp Craft]] 
{{stage short|100%|29 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Camping Skills I|Camping Skills I]] 
{{stage short|100%|10 May, 2007}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Camping Skills II|Camping Skills II]] 
{{stage short|100%|15 Jun, 2007}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Camping Skills III|Camping Skills III]] 
{{stage short|100%|2 Apr, 2007}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Camping Skills IV|Camping Skills IV]] 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Canoe Building|Canoe Building]] {{division_honor|SPD}} 
{{stage short|100%|19 Aug, 2007}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Canoeing|Canoeing]] 
{{stage short|50%|23 Aug, 2007}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Caving|Caving]] 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Caving - Advanced|Caving - Advanced]] 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Community Water Safety|Community Water Safety]] 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Community Water Safety - Advanced|Community Water Safety - Advanced]] 
{{stage short|50%|22 Jan, 2008}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Cycling|Cycling]] 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Cycling - Advanced|Cycling - Advanced]] 
{{stage short|50%|9 May, 2007}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Drilling & Marching|Drilling & Marching]] 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Drilling & Marching - Advanced|Drilling & Marching - Advanced]] 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Drumming & Percussion|Drumming & Percussion]]{{ref|new_2006}} {{division_honor|NAD}} 
{{stage short|100%|1 Jan, 2008}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Dutch Oven Cooking|Dutch Oven Cooking]] {{fixed_ref|new_2006|1}} {{division_honor|NAD}} 
{{stage short|100%|13 May, 2007}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Fire Building & Camp Cookery|Fire Building & Camp Cookery]] 
{{stage short|100%|21 Aug, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Geocaching|Geocaching]] {{ref|new_2005}} {{division_honor|NAD}} 
|valign="top"|
{{stage short|50%|7 Sep, 2007}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Geocaching - Advanced|Geocaching - Advanced]]{{division_honor|NAD}} 
{{stage short|50%|20 Mar, 2008}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Gold Prospecting|Gold Prospecting]]{{ref|new_2008|3}} {{division_honor|NAD}} 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Gold Prospecting - Advanced|Gold Prospecting - Advanced]]{{fixed_ref|new_2008|3}} {{division_honor|NAD}} 
{{stage short|100%|2 Oct, 2007}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Hiking|Hiking]] 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Horsemanship|Horsemanship]] 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Horsemanship - Advanced|Horsemanship - Advanced]] 
{{stage short|100%|8 Jul, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Kayaking|Kayaking]] {{division_honor|SPD}} 
{{stage short|75%|10 Feb, 2008}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Kites|Kites]] 
{{stage short|100%|27 Jun, 2007}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Knot Tying|Knot Tying]] 
{{stage short|100%|27 Jun, 2007}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Letterboxing|Letterboxing]] {{ref|new_2008}} {{division_honor|NAD}} 
{{stage short|100%|27 Jun, 2007}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Letterboxing - Advanced|Letterboxing - Advanced]] {{ref|new_2008}} {{division_honor|NAD}} 
{{stage short|00%|26 Jul, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Mountain Biking|Mountain Biking]] {{division_honor|NAD}} 
{{stage short|50%|25 Mar, 2007}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Navigation|Navigation]] 
{{stage short|100%|11 Oct, 2007}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Orienteering|Orienteering]] 
{{stage short|100%|7 Feb, 2007}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Outdoor Leadership|Outdoor Leadership]] 
{{stage short|25%|25 Nov, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Outdoor Leadership - Advanced|Outdoor Leadership - Advanced]] 
{{stage short|100%|26 Sep, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Physical Fitness|Physical Fitness]] 
{{stage short|50%|4 Jul, 2007}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Pioneering|Pioneering]] 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Power Boating|Power Boating]] {{division_honor|NAD}} 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Rock Climbing|Rock Climbing]] 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Rock Climbing - Advanced|Rock Climbing - Advanced]] 
{{stage short|00%|14 Nov, 2007}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Rowing|Rowing]] 
{{stage short|50%|28 July, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Sailing|Sailing]] 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Scuba Diving|Scuba Diving]] 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Scuba Diving - Advanced|Scuba Diving - Advanced]] 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Skateboarding|Skateboarding]] {{ref|skate}}{{division_honor|SPD}} 

|valign="top"|
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Skiing - Cross Country|Skiing - Cross Country]] {{division_honor|NAD}} 
{{stage short|00%|3 Oct, 2007}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Skiing Downhill|Skiing Downhill]] 
{{stage short|25%|5 Feb, 2007}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Skin Diving|Skin Diving]] 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Slow-Pitch Softball|Slow-Pitch Softball]]{{fixed_ref|new_2006|1}} {{division_honor|NAD}} 
{{stage short|100%|12 Apr, 2007}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Soccer|Soccer]] {{division_honor|NAD}} 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Springboard Diving|Springboard Diving]] 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Swimming - Beginner|Swimming - Beginner]] 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Swimming - Advanced Beginner|Swimming - Advanced Beginner]] 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Swimming - Intermediate|Swimming - Intermediate]] 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Swimming|Swimming]] 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Swimming - Advanced|Swimming - Advanced]] 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Track & Field|Track & Field]] 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Tree Climbing|Tree Climbing]] {{division_honor|SPD}} 
{{stage short|50%|22 Jun, 2007}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Triathlon|Triathlon]] {{division_honor|SPD}} 
{{stage short|100%|22 Jun, 2007}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Triathlon - Advanced|Triathlon - Advanced]] {{division_honor|SPD}} 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Tumbling & Balancing|Tumbling & Balancing]] 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Tumbling & Balancing - Advanced|Tumbling & Balancing - Advanced]] 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Unicycling|Unicycling]] {{fixed_ref|new_2008|3}} {{division_honor|NAD}} 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Wakeboarding|Wakeboarding]] {{fixed_ref|new_2006|1}} {{division_honor|NAD}} 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Water Skiing|Water Skiing]] 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Water Skiing - Advanced|Water Skiing - Advanced]] 
{{stage short|50%|25 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Wilderness Leadership|Wilderness Leadership]] 
{{stage short|00%|27 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Wilderness Leadership - Advanced|Wilderness Leadership - Advanced]] 
{{stage short|100%|4 Jul, 2007}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Wilderness Living|Wilderness Living]] 
{{stage short|No_work|5 Dec, 2006}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Wind Surfing|Wind Surfing]] 
{{stage short|100%|19 Jul, 2007}} [[Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Winter Camping|Winter Camping]] 
|}
{{ay_honor_divisions_legend}}
__NOTOC__

==Index of {{SUBPAGENAME}} Honors by Skill Level==
===Skill Level 1 {{SUBPAGENAME}} Honors===
<DynamicPageList>
category=Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/{{SUBPAGENAME}}
category=Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Skill Level 1
order=ascending
namespace=0
</DynamicPageList>
===Skill Level 2 {{SUBPAGENAME}} Honors===
<DynamicPageList>
category=Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/{{SUBPAGENAME}}
category=Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Skill Level 2
order=ascending
namespace=0
</DynamicPageList>
===Skill Level 3 {{SUBPAGENAME}} Honors===
<DynamicPageList>
category=Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/{{SUBPAGENAME}}
category=Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Skill Level 3
order=ascending
namespace=0
</DynamicPageList>
==Notes==
#{{note|drum}} The ''Drumming & Percussion, Drumming & Percussion - Advanced, Dutch Oven Cooking, Slow-Pitch Softball, and Wakeboarding'' honors were introduced in 2006, and therefore have no entry in the official answer books.
#{{note|geo}} The ''Geocaching'' honor was introduced in 2005, so it has no entry in the official Answer Book.
#{{note|new_2008}} The ''Gold Prospecting'', ''Letterboxing'', and ''Unicycling'' honors were introduced in 2008, and therefore have no entry in the official answer books.
#{{note|skate}} The Skateboarding honor was voted to not be used in North America because of insurance regulations.

[[Category:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]

AY Honors/Gold Prospecting/Answer Key

2008-03-20T08:13:17Z

MrJoe: Wikify some of the text.

{{honor_header|Unknown|2008|Recreation|North American Division}}
{{New honor warning|2008}}

==1. Create a list of equipment used for gold panning. Describe each item and tell what it is used for. The list should include at least the following.==
;a. Gold Pan
:A gold pan is typically a round pan with a flat bottom and conical sides. Modern gold pans are made from plastic and have riffles formed into one side. Gold panning is the simplest way to prospect for placer or flood gold.
:A plastic gold pan with built in riffles is your best choice since it is lighter and won’t rust. Green or blue pans are somewhat easier to use than black pans since it is easier to see the black sands against green or blue than it is to see them against a black pan. A pan with a wide bottom will be easier to use when separating the gold from the black sands than a pan with a narrow bottom. For beginners stick with a basic pan and leave the pans with multiple sets of riffles, or non-round shapes alone. A pan full of material is heavy so for pathfinders an 8-10 inch pan is probably best. For adults start out with a 12-14 inch pan. Pans are available in sizes up to 17 inches but a 17 inch pan is very heavy when it is full.
;b. Classifier
:A classifier is a screen that is used to classify material to be panned. Classifying material is the process of separating different sizes of material. Usually a classifier is used to remove large rocks prior to panning. Classifiers are available with screens having holes from 1/2 inch down to 1/100th of an inch in size and are identified by the size of the holes in fractions of an inch. So a number 2 classifier would have 1/2 inch holes while a number 100 would have holes that were 1/100th of an inch in size. For panning the usual sizes of classifier used are 2, 4, and 8.
:A cheap classifier that is very useful for classifying wet or damp material can be made using a roll of 1/2 or 1/4 inch hardware cloth. Take the hardware cloth and cut out a section large enough to make a cylinder that just fits inside your bucket with about an inch of overlap at the seam. Using the wire that held the roll of hardware cloth together, sew up the seam. Cut a number of 2-3 inch slits spaced evenly along one edge of the cylinder. Cut out a piece of hardware cloth that will just fit inside of the cylinder and secure it to the bottom of the cylinder by bending the flaps formed by cutting the slits under the bottom. Sew the bottom piece to the flaps using more of the wire from the hardware cloth. You should now have a basket that fits inside your bucket. You will want to wrap the top edge with something like cotton rope to protect your hands. To use the classifier fill the bucket with water and then swish the classifier full of material in the water. The small material will be rinsed out into the bucket and the remaining material can be discarded.

;c. Snuffer Bottle
:A snuffer or sucker bottle is a plastic squeezable bottle used to suck up gold or black sands from the bottom of the gold pan. The snuffer bottle has a straw through the opening. This straw lets you squeeze the bottle without worrying about the gold inside squirting out through the opening. If you have a large enough snuffer bottle or if you have more than one, consider just sucking up all the black sands and taking them home to cleanup later. You will be able to pan much more material if you don’t stop to clean out just the gold from each pan.
:For cleaning out the gold from the black sands a small plastic eyedropper is useful to suck up just the gold and drop it in a vial.
:Glass vials are very nice for displaying gold, but they will break if dropped on a rock, use plastic vials when in the field.
;d. Shovel
:A shovel is used to dig up the material to be panned.
;e. Pick
:A pick is used to breakup hard packed material.
;f. Bucket
:A bucket is used to haul material from the location it is being dug out of the ground, to a location where it can be panned. 5 gallon buckets are popular because they are readily available and most classifiers are designed to fit on top of them. However 5 gallon buckets have one big disadvantage, when they are full they are very heavy, and they are almost always filled too full. 3 gallon buckets with the same size opening as a 5 gallon bucket are a much better choice.
;g. Trowel
:A trowel is used to dig material from locations where a large shovel will not fit.
;h. Pry bar
:A pry bar is used to move large rocks to allow you to get to the material underneath them. Other items that might be used for this are pulleys, winches, or come alongs.
;i. Rock hammer
:A rock hammer can be used to break up rocks so that they can be more easily moved.
;j. Crevice tool
:A crevice tool is a thin piece of metal with a narrow scoop on one end. It is used to dig material out of very narrow crevices between rocks. Purpose made crevice tools can be purchased, but you may have something around the house that will work just as well. Likely candidates are old flat screw drivers, hub cap removal tools from cars you no longer own, or just a piece of metal rod with one end pounded flat.
;k. Drinking water
:Prospecting is usually hard work, often in the hot sun. Staying hydrated is very important, and you almost certainly shouldn't drink the water from the river or stream you are panning in, so you should always have drinking water available.
;l. Other possible items.
:Other items you might want with you include
:*Sun screen
:*Food
:*A canoe yoke and short straps. (This makes a wonderful bucket carrier.)
:*Dry change of clothes.
:*Small towel
:*Water shoes or waders
:*Backpack, to carry all your stuff in.
:*Knee pad
:*Etc, etc, etc...

==2. Define the following:==
;a. Pay dirt
:Pay dirt is material containing high concentrations of gold.
;b. Quartz
:Quartz is the second most common mineral on earth. It is a crystal made of silicon dioxide and is often found near with gold. Finding quartz does not mean that you will also find gold, but if you find gold there will almost always be quartz nearby. Lode gold is usually found mixed in or around quartz veins.
;c. Pyrite
:Pyrite is often referred to as fool’s gold, there are other minerals that are also mistaken for gold but pyrite is by far the most common. Pyrite is composed of iron sulfide, and can easily be distinguished from gold because it is much less dense and it leaves a black streak if rubbed across the bottom of a gold pan.
;d. Blond sands
:Any of the light colored material washed out of the pan while panning. Blond sands usually have a [[w:Specific_gravity|specific gravity]] of 2 – 2.5, that is they are about twice as heavy as water.
;e. Black sands
:Black sands are mostly made of magnetite and hematite. Black sands have a [[w:Specific_gravity|specific gravity]] of about 5.
;f. Placer
:Placer gold is the gold that has been eroded from the mother lode and washed down into the streams and rivers.
;g. Lode
:Lode gold is gold that is still in the rock before it has been eroded and washed into a stream or river. A group of lodes or veins of gold is often referred to as a mother lode. One of the best-known mother lodes is the California Mother Lode. This is a zone one to four miles wide and 120 miles long in the Sierra Nevada Mountains of California. The individual gold deposits within the mother lode are gold bearing quartz veins up to 50 feet thick and a few thousand feet long.
;h. Nugget
:A nugget is a naturally occurring chunk of gold. Nuggets can be picked up with your fingers and are usually at least a gram or more in weight. The largest nugget ever found was the [[w:Welcome_Stranger|“Welcome Stranger”]] and weighed 2316 troy ounces, it was found in Moliagul, Victoria, Australia on February 5, 1869. Smaller pieces of gold that can still be picked up with your fingers are called pickers.
;i. Flake
:A flake is a piece of gold that is flat and cannot be easily picked up with your fingers.
;j. Dust
:Dust or flour gold, are tiny pieces of gold too small to be called flakes.
;k. [[w:Specific_gravity|Specific gravity]]
:[[w:Specific_gravity|Specific gravity]] is the ratio of the density a given material to the density of water. So a material with a [[w:Specific_gravity|specific gravity]] of 2 is twice as dense as water.
;l. Wet and Dry panning
:Panning is using a gold pan to separate gold from the surrounding material. This is accomplished by suspending the material in the pan in a fluid. Once the material is suspended in the fluid the denser material settles to the bottom of the pan. The fluid can be anything but the most common is water or air. Wet panning is panning using water as the fluid, dry panning is using air as the fluid. Wet panning is much more efficient that dry panning because gold is much denser than the surrounding material compared to water, but compared to air all the material is relatively dense.
;m. [[w:Mercury (element)|Mercury]]
:[[w:Mercury (element)|Mercury]] is a toxic metal that is liquid at room temperature. Since it is toxic it should be avoided, however it has often been used to pull fine gold out of black sands. When mixed with black sands containing gold, the [[w:Mercury (element)|ercury]] will amalgamate with the gold and you will end up with a lump of [[w:Mercury (element)|mercury]] containing all of the gold.
;n. [[w:Troy_weight#Troy_pound|Troy pound]]
:One [[w:Troy_weight#Troy_pound|troy pound]] equals .82 regular or [[w:Avoirdupois|“avoirdupois”]] [[w:Pound_(mass)#Avoirdupois_pound|pounds]], and is made up of [[w:Troy_weight#Troy_pound|troy pound]] 12 [[w:Troy_weight#Troy_ounce|troy ounces]].
;o. [[w:Troy_weight#Troy_ounce|Troy ounce]]
:The [[w:Troy_weight#Troy_ounce|troy ounce]] is the standard measure of gold and other precious metals. One [[w:Troy_weight#Troy_ounce|troy ounce]] equals 1.1 regular or [[w:Avoirdupois|“avoirdupois”]] [[w:Ounce#International_avoirdupois_ounce|ounces]].
;p. [[w:Pennyweight|Pennyweight (dwt)]]
:A [[w:Pennyweight|pennyweight]] is 1/20th of a troy ounce.
;q. [[w:Grain (mass)|Grain]]
:A [[w:Grain (mass)|grain]] is 1/24th of a [[w:Pennyweight|pennyweight]].
;r. Gold fever
:What people get that causes them to keep hunting for gold. Extreme cases of "Gold Fever" have been known to cause people to do seemingly insane things such as hauling a ton of equipment over the 33 mile [[w:Chilkoot Trail|Chilkoot Trail]] during the [[w:Klondike Gold Rush|Klondike Gold Rush]].

==3. What are the following identifying characteristics of Gold.==
;a. [[w:Specific_gravity|specific gravity]]
:The [[w:Specific_gravity|specific gravity]] of gold is 19.3. This is almost twice the [[w:Specific_gravity|specific gravity]] of lead, which is 11.3 and almost 4 times the [[w:Specific_gravity|specific gravity]] of black sands at around 5.
;b. Color of streak
:When rubbed against the bottom of a gold pan a piece of gold will leave a yellow streak.
;c. Color
:Gold is one of only two metals that in their raw state are not silver colored. Gold in its natural state is a yellow color. The other non-silver colored metal is copper.

==4. Where are some good places on a river or stream to look for gold.==
:Gold is heavy so it is only moved by large amounts of fast water, like in the winter when a river is high or flooding. The gold will drop out of the stream wherever the water slows down, or where there is something to cause an area of low pressure in the stream. So look for gold on the downstream side of large rocks or boulders or in cracks that the gold may have dropped into and been wedged in place. Look on the inside part of bends in the stream. Imagine what the river would be like when it is full and look for gold where the water would have a chance to slow down.

==5. Make a timeline containing at least 15 items about the history of gold prospecting from 1600 until the present day.==
:The timeline should probably include the “major” gold rushes, as well as any local gold rushes, and specify when they started and how long they lasted, as well as how many people were involved and the amount of gold recovered. Other items in the time line should include things like major technological developments in prospecting, examples of this include the development and subsequent ban on hydraulic mining in California, the development of square set timbers in the Comstock silver mine, or the development of steam powered bucket dredges.

==6. Learn about gold panning by doing one of the following:==
;a. Do some gold panning. (preferred).
:Most states in the U.S. have areas where gold can be located. The best way to meet this requirement is to go to an area and actually dig up the material and pan it there. It would be best for the instructor to scout the area first and find a location where there is at least some gold available, ideally there should be at least a few flakes or specs of gold in each pan.
:Another way to meet this requirement is for the instructor to get some gold bearing material and then have the students pan it in some type of trough, the plastic pans available at your local hardware store for mixing mortar work well. You can also build a panning trough out of 2x10 lumber with a thin plywood bottom and line it with plastic.
:You can also purchase black sand concentrates from various locations on the Internet. These can be mixed with sand and gravel from a local river or stream bank and then used for panning.
:When panning don’t fill the pan completely full. It is easier, especially for beginners to start with a pan that is 1/2 to 3/4 full. You may also want to drop a small lead weight like a fishing weight into the pan. If the lead is still in the pan when the pan is down to just black sands then you can be sure that the gold is still there also.
;b. Practice panning using flattened lead or tungsten shot mixed with sand (preferably from a river bank).
:Get some sand and gravel, from a river or stream bank if possible, and mix in a specific number of flattened lead or tungsten shot. Tungsten shot would be the best choice for two reasons if you can find it. First unlike lead, tungsten is non toxic, and second, while lead at 11.3 is only about half the [[w:Specific_gravity|specific gravity]] of gold, tungsten is almost identical at 19.62.

==7. Look up the following verses in the Bible and discuss them in relation to prospecting for gold.==
;a. Matthew 13<nowiki>:</nowiki>44-46
:44The kingdom of heaven is like treasure hidden in a field, which someone found and hid; then in his joy he goes and sells all that he has and buys that field. 45Again, the kingdom of heaven is like a merchant in search of fine pearls; 46on finding one pearl of great value, he went and sold all that he had and bought it.
;b. Matthew 6<nowiki>:</nowiki>19-21
:19Lay not up for yourselves treasures upon earth, where moth and rust doth corrupt, and where thieves break through and steal. 20But lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven, where neither moth nor rust doth corrupt, and where thieves do not break through nor steal. 21For where your treasure is, there will your heart be also.

AY Honors/Gold Prospecting/Answer Key

2008-03-20T07:51:41Z

MrJoe: Change description of classifiers

{{honor_header|Unknown|2008|Recreation|North American Division}}
{{New honor warning|2008}}

==1. Create a list of equipment used for gold panning. Describe each item and tell what it is used for. The list should include at least the following.==
;a. Gold Pan
:A gold pan is typically a round pan with a flat bottom and conical sides. Modern gold pans are made from plastic and have riffles formed into one side. Gold panning is the simplest way to prospect for placer or flood gold.
:A plastic gold pan with built in riffles is your best choice since it is lighter and won’t rust. Green or blue pans are somewhat easier to use than black pans since it is easier to see the black sands against green or blue than it is to see them against a black pan. A pan with a wide bottom will be easier to use when separating the gold from the black sands than a pan with a narrow bottom. For beginners stick with a basic pan and leave the pans with multiple sets of riffles, or non-round shapes alone. A pan full of material is heavy so for pathfinders an 8-10 inch pan is probably best. For adults start out with a 12-14 inch pan. Pans are available in sizes up to 17 inches but a 17 inch pan is very heavy when it is full.
;b. Classifier
:A classifier is a screen that is used to classify material to be panned. Classifying material is the process of separating different sizes of material. Usually a classifier is used to remove large rocks prior to panning. Classifiers are available with screens having holes from 1/2 inch down to 1/100th of an inch in size and are identified by the size of the holes in fractions of an inch. So a number 2 classifier would have 1/2 inch holes while a number 100 would have holes that were 1/100th of an inch in size. For panning the usual sizes of classifier used are 2, 4, and 8.
:A cheap classifier that is very useful for classifying wet or damp material can be made using a roll of 1/2 or 1/4 inch hardware cloth. Take the hardware cloth and cut out a section large enough to make a cylinder that just fits inside your bucket with about an inch of overlap at the seam. Using the wire that held the roll of hardware cloth together, sew up the seam. Cut a number of 2-3 inch slits spaced evenly along one edge of the cylinder. Cut out a piece of hardware cloth that will just fit inside of the cylinder and secure it to the bottom of the cylinder by bending the flaps formed by cutting the slits under the bottom. Sew the bottom piece to the flaps using more of the wire from the hardware cloth. You should now have a basket that fits inside your bucket. You will want to wrap the top edge with something like cotton rope to protect your hands. To use the classifier fill the bucket with water and then swish the classifier full of material in the water. The small material will be rinsed out into the bucket and the remaining material can be discarded.

;c. Snuffer Bottle
:A snuffer or sucker bottle is a plastic squeezable bottle used to suck up gold or black sands from the bottom of the gold pan. The snuffer bottle has a straw through the opening. This straw lets you squeeze the bottle without worrying about the gold inside squirting out through the opening. If you have a large enough snuffer bottle or if you have more than one, consider just sucking up all the black sands and taking them home to cleanup later. You will be able to pan much more material if you don’t stop to clean out just the gold from each pan.
:For cleaning out the gold from the black sands a small plastic eyedropper is useful to suck up just the gold and drop it in a vial.
:Glass vials are very nice for displaying gold, but they will break if dropped on a rock, use plastic vials when in the field.
;d. Shovel
:A shovel is used to dig up the material to be panned.
;e. Pick
:A pick is used to breakup hard packed material.
;f. Bucket
:A bucket is used to haul material from the location it is being dug out of the ground, to a location where it can be panned. 5 gallon buckets are popular because they are readily available and most classifiers are designed to fit on top of them. However 5 gallon buckets have one big disadvantage, when they are full they are very heavy, and they are almost always filled too full. 3 gallon buckets with the same size opening as a 5 gallon bucket are a much better choice.
;g. Trowel
:A trowel is used to dig material from locations where a large shovel will not fit.
;h. Pry bar
:A pry bar is used to move large rocks to allow you to get to the material underneath them. Other items that might be used for this are pulleys, winches, or come alongs.
;i. Rock hammer
:A rock hammer can be used to break up rocks so that they can be more easily moved.
;j. Crevice tool
:A crevice tool is a thin piece of metal with a narrow scoop on one end. It is used to dig material out of very narrow crevices between rocks. Purpose made crevice tools can be purchased, but you may have something around the house that will work just as well. Likely candidates are old flat screw drivers, hub cap removal tools from cars you no longer own, or just a piece of metal rod with one end pounded flat.
;k. Drinking water
:Prospecting is usually hard work, often in the hot sun. Staying hydrated is very important, and you almost certainly shouldn't drink the water from the river or stream you are panning in, so you should always have drinking water available.
;l. Other possible items.
:Other items you might want with you include
:*Sun screen
:*Food
:*A canoe yoke and short straps. (This makes a wonderful bucket carrier.)
:*Dry change of clothes.
:*Small towel
:*Water shoes or waders
:*Backpack, to carry all your stuff in.
:*Knee pad
:*Etc, etc, etc...

==2. Define the following:==
;a. Pay dirt
:Pay dirt is material containing high concentrations of gold.
;b. Quartz
:Quartz is the second most common mineral on earth. It is a crystal made of silicon dioxide and is often found near with gold. Finding quartz does not mean that you will also find gold, but if you find gold there will almost always be quartz nearby. Lode gold is usually found mixed in or around quartz veins.
;c. Pyrite
:Pyrite is often referred to as fool’s gold, there are other minerals that are also mistaken for gold but pyrite is by far the most common. Pyrite is composed of iron sulfide, and can easily be distinguished from gold because it is much less dense and it leaves a black streak if rubbed across the bottom of a gold pan.
;d. Blond sands
:Any of the light colored material washed out of the pan while panning. Blond sands usually have a specific gravity of 2 – 2.5, that is they are about twice as heavy as water.
;e. Black sands
:Black sands are mostly made of magnetite and hematite. Black sands have a specific gravity of about 5.
;f. Placer
:Placer gold is the gold that has been eroded from the mother lode and washed down into the streams and rivers.
;g. Lode
:Lode gold is gold that is still in the rock before it has been eroded and washed into a stream or river. A group of lodes or veins of gold is often referred to as a mother lode. One of the best-known mother lodes is the California Mother Lode. This is a zone one to four miles wide and 120 miles long in the Sierra Nevada Mountains of California. The individual gold deposits within the mother lode are gold bearing quartz veins up to 50 feet thick and a few thousand feet long.
;h. Nugget
:A nugget is a naturally occurring chunk of gold. Nuggets can be picked up with your fingers and are usually at least a gram or more in weight. The largest nugget ever found was the “Welcome Stranger” and weighed 2316 troy ounces, it was found in Moliagul, Victoria, Australia on February 5, 1869. Smaller pieces of gold that can still be picked up with your fingers are called pickers.
;i. Flake
:A flake is a piece of gold that is flat and cannot be easily picked up with your fingers.
;j. Dust
:Dust or flour gold, are tiny pieces of gold too small to be called flakes.
;k. Specific gravity
:Specific gravity is the ratio of the density a given material to the density of water. So a material with a specific gravity of 2 is twice as dense as water.
;l. Wet and Dry panning
:Panning is using a gold pan to separate gold from the surrounding material. This is accomplished by suspending the material in the pan in a fluid. Once the material is suspended in the fluid the denser material settles to the bottom of the pan. The fluid can be anything but the most common is water or air. Wet panning is panning using water as the fluid, dry panning is using air as the fluid. Wet panning is much more efficient that dry panning because gold is much denser than the surrounding material compared to water, but compared to air all the material is relatively dense.
;m. Mercury
:Mercury is a toxic metal that is liquid at room temperature. Since it is toxic it should be avoided, however it has often been used to pull fine gold out of black sands. When mixed with black sands containing gold, the mercury will amalgamate with the gold and you will end up with a lump of mercury containing all of the gold.
;n. Troy pound
:One troy pound equals .82 regular or “avoirdupois” pounds. One troy pound also equals 12 troy ounces.
;o. Troy ounce
:The troy ounce is the standard measure of gold and other precious metals. One troy ounce equals 1.1 regular or “avoirdupois” ounces.
;p. Pennyweight (dwt)
:The pennyweight is 1/20th of a troy ounce.
;q. Grain
:A grain is 1/24th of a pennyweight.
;r. Gold fever
:What people get that causes them to keep hunting for gold. Extreme cases of "Gold Fever" have been known to cause people to do seemingly insane things such as hauling a ton of equipment over the 33 mile [[w:Chilkoot Trail|Chilkoot Trail]] during the [[w:Klondike Gold Rush|Klondike Gold Rush]].

==3. What are the following identifying characteristics of Gold.==
;a. Specific Gravity
:The specific gravity of gold is 19.3. This is almost twice the specific gravity of lead, which is 11.3 and almost 4 times the specific gravity of black sands at around 5.
;b. Color of streak
:When rubbed against the bottom of a gold pan a piece of gold will leave a yellow streak.
;c. Color
:Gold is one of only two metals that in their raw state are not silver colored. Gold in its natural state is a yellow color. The other non-silver colored metal is copper.

==4. Where are some good places on a river or stream to look for gold.==
:Gold is heavy so it is only moved by large amounts of fast water, like in the winter when a river is high or flooding. The gold will drop out of the stream wherever the water slows down, or where there is something to cause an area of low pressure in the stream. So look for gold on the downstream side of large rocks or boulders or in cracks that the gold may have dropped into and been wedged in place. Look on the inside part of bends in the stream. Imagine what the river would be like when it is full and look for gold where the water would have a chance to slow down.

==5. Make a timeline containing at least 15 items about the history of gold prospecting from 1600 until the present day.==
:The timeline should probably include the “major” gold rushes, as well as any local gold rushes, and specify when they started and how long they lasted, as well as how many people were involved and the amount of gold recovered. Other items in the time line should include things like major technological developments in prospecting, examples of this include the development and subsequent ban on hydraulic mining in California, the development of square set timbers in the Comstock silver mine, or the development of steam powered bucket dredges.

==6. Learn about gold panning by doing one of the following:==
;a. Do some gold panning. (preferred).
:Most states in the U.S. have areas where gold can be located. The best way to meet this requirement is to go to an area and actually dig up the material and pan it there. It would be best for the instructor to scout the area first and find a location where there is at least some gold available, ideally there should be at least a few flakes or specs of gold in each pan.
:Another way to meet this requirement is for the instructor to get some gold bearing material and then have the students pan it in some type of trough, the plastic pans available at your local hardware store for mixing mortar work well. You can also build a panning trough out of 2x10 lumber with a thin plywood bottom and line it with plastic.
:You can also purchase black sand concentrates from various locations on the Internet. These can be mixed with sand and gravel from a local river or stream bank and then used for panning.
:When panning don’t fill the pan completely full. It is easier, especially for beginners to start with a pan that is 1/2 to 3/4 full. You may also want to drop a small lead weight like a fishing weight into the pan. If the lead is still in the pan when the pan is down to just black sands then you can be sure that the gold is still there also.
;b. Practice panning using flattened lead or tungsten shot mixed with sand (preferably from a river bank).
:Get some sand and gravel, from a river or stream bank if possible, and mix in a specific number of flattened lead or tungsten shot. Tungsten shot would be the best choice for two reasons if you can find it. First unlike lead, tungsten is non toxic, and second, while lead is only about half the specific gravity of gold, tungsten is almost identical at 19.62.

==7. Look up the following verses in the Bible and discuss them in relation to prospecting for gold.==
;a. Matthew 13<nowiki>:</nowiki>44-46
:44The kingdom of heaven is like treasure hidden in a field, which someone found and hid; then in his joy he goes and sells all that he has and buys that field. 45Again, the kingdom of heaven is like a merchant in search of fine pearls; 46on finding one pearl of great value, he went and sold all that he had and bought it.
;b. Matthew 6<nowiki>:</nowiki>19-21
:19Lay not up for yourselves treasures upon earth, where moth and rust doth corrupt, and where thieves break through and steal. 20But lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven, where neither moth nor rust doth corrupt, and where thieves do not break through nor steal. 21For where your treasure is, there will your heart be also.

AY Honors/Gold Prospecting/Answer Key

2008-03-20T07:46:17Z

MrJoe: Add answers

{{honor_header|Unknown|2008|Recreation|North American Division}}
{{New honor warning|2008}}

==1. Create a list of equipment used for gold panning. Describe each item and tell what it is used for. The list should include at least the following.==
;a. Gold Pan
:A gold pan is typically a round pan with a flat bottom and conical sides. Modern gold pans are made from plastic and have riffles formed into one side. Gold panning is the simplest way to prospect for placer or flood gold.
:A plastic gold pan with built in riffles is your best choice since it is lighter and won’t rust. Green or blue pans are somewhat easier to use than black pans since it is easier to see the black sands against green or blue than it is to see them against a black pan. A pan with a wide bottom will be easier to use when separating the gold from the black sands than a pan with a narrow bottom. For beginners stick with a basic pan and leave the pans with multiple sets of riffles, or non-round shapes alone. A pan full of material is heavy so for pathfinders an 8-10 inch pan is probably best. For adults start out with a 12-14 inch pan. Pans are available in sizes up to 17 inches but a 17 inch pan is very heavy when it is full.
;b. Classifier
:A classifier is a screen that is used to classify material to be panned. Classifying material is the process of separating different sizes of material. Usually a classifier is used to remove large rocks prior to panning. Classifiers are available with screens having holes from 1/2 inch down to 1/100th of an inch in size. For panning the usual sizes of classifier used are 1/2 inch, 1/4 inch, or 1/8 inch.
:A cheap classifier that is very useful for classifying wet or damp material can be made using a roll of 1/2 or 1/4 inch hardware cloth. Take the hardware cloth and cut out a section large enough to make a cylinder that just fits inside your bucket with about an inch of overlap at the seam. Using the wire that held the roll of hardware cloth together, sew up the seam. Cut a number of 2-3 inch slits spaced evenly along one edge of the cylinder. Cut out a piece of hardware cloth that will just fit inside of the cylinder and secure it to the bottom of the cylinder by bending the flaps formed by cutting the slits under the bottom. Sew the bottom piece to the flaps using more of the wire from the hardware cloth. You should now have a basket that fits inside your bucket. You will want to wrap the top edge with something like cotton rope to protect your hands. To use the classifier fill the bucket with water and then swish the classifier full of material in the water. The small material will be rinsed out into the bucket and the remaining material can be discarded.

;c. Snuffer Bottle
:A snuffer or sucker bottle is a plastic squeezable bottle used to suck up gold or black sands from the bottom of the gold pan. The snuffer bottle has a straw through the opening. This straw lets you squeeze the bottle without worrying about the gold inside squirting out through the opening. If you have a large enough snuffer bottle or if you have more than one, consider just sucking up all the black sands and taking them home to cleanup later. You will be able to pan much more material if you don’t stop to clean out just the gold from each pan.
:For cleaning out the gold from the black sands a small plastic eyedropper is useful to suck up just the gold and drop it in a vial.
:Glass vials are very nice for displaying gold, but they will break if dropped on a rock, use plastic vials when in the field.
;d. Shovel
:A shovel is used to dig up the material to be panned.
;e. Pick
:A pick is used to breakup hard packed material.
;f. Bucket
:A bucket is used to haul material from the location it is being dug out of the ground, to a location where it can be panned. 5 gallon buckets are popular because they are readily available and most classifiers are designed to fit on top of them. However 5 gallon buckets have one big disadvantage, when they are full they are very heavy, and they are almost always filled too full. 3 gallon buckets with the same size opening as a 5 gallon bucket are a much better choice.
;g. Trowel
:A trowel is used to dig material from locations where a large shovel will not fit.
;h. Pry bar
:A pry bar is used to move large rocks to allow you to get to the material underneath them. Other items that might be used for this are pulleys, winches, or come alongs.
;i. Rock hammer
:A rock hammer can be used to break up rocks so that they can be more easily moved.
;j. Crevice tool
:A crevice tool is a thin piece of metal with a narrow scoop on one end. It is used to dig material out of very narrow crevices between rocks. Purpose made crevice tools can be purchased, but you may have something around the house that will work just as well. Likely candidates are old flat screw drivers, hub cap removal tools from cars you no longer own, or just a piece of metal rod with one end pounded flat.
;k. Drinking water
:Prospecting is usually hard work, often in the hot sun. Staying hydrated is very important, and you almost certainly shouldn't drink the water from the river or stream you are panning in, so you should always have drinking water available.
;l. Other possible items.
:Other items you might want with you include
:*Sun screen
:*Food
:*A canoe yoke and short straps. (This makes a wonderful bucket carrier.)
:*Dry change of clothes.
:*Small towel
:*Water shoes or waders
:*Backpack, to carry all your stuff in.
:*Knee pad
:*Etc, etc, etc...

==2. Define the following:==
;a. Pay dirt
:Pay dirt is material containing high concentrations of gold.
;b. Quartz
:Quartz is the second most common mineral on earth. It is a crystal made of silicon dioxide and is often found near with gold. Finding quartz does not mean that you will also find gold, but if you find gold there will almost always be quartz nearby. Lode gold is usually found mixed in or around quartz veins.
;c. Pyrite
:Pyrite is often referred to as fool’s gold, there are other minerals that are also mistaken for gold but pyrite is by far the most common. Pyrite is composed of iron sulfide, and can easily be distinguished from gold because it is much less dense and it leaves a black streak if rubbed across the bottom of a gold pan.
;d. Blond sands
:Any of the light colored material washed out of the pan while panning. Blond sands usually have a specific gravity of 2 – 2.5, that is they are about twice as heavy as water.
;e. Black sands
:Black sands are mostly made of magnetite and hematite. Black sands have a specific gravity of about 5.
;f. Placer
:Placer gold is the gold that has been eroded from the mother lode and washed down into the streams and rivers.
;g. Lode
:Lode gold is gold that is still in the rock before it has been eroded and washed into a stream or river. A group of lodes or veins of gold is often referred to as a mother lode. One of the best-known mother lodes is the California Mother Lode. This is a zone one to four miles wide and 120 miles long in the Sierra Nevada Mountains of California. The individual gold deposits within the mother lode are gold bearing quartz veins up to 50 feet thick and a few thousand feet long.
;h. Nugget
:A nugget is a naturally occurring chunk of gold. Nuggets can be picked up with your fingers and are usually at least a gram or more in weight. The largest nugget ever found was the “Welcome Stranger” and weighed 2316 troy ounces, it was found in Moliagul, Victoria, Australia on February 5, 1869. Smaller pieces of gold that can still be picked up with your fingers are called pickers.
;i. Flake
:A flake is a piece of gold that is flat and cannot be easily picked up with your fingers.
;j. Dust
:Dust or flour gold, are tiny pieces of gold too small to be called flakes.
;k. Specific gravity
:Specific gravity is the ratio of the density a given material to the density of water. So a material with a specific gravity of 2 is twice as dense as water.
;l. Wet and Dry panning
:Panning is using a gold pan to separate gold from the surrounding material. This is accomplished by suspending the material in the pan in a fluid. Once the material is suspended in the fluid the denser material settles to the bottom of the pan. The fluid can be anything but the most common is water or air. Wet panning is panning using water as the fluid, dry panning is using air as the fluid. Wet panning is much more efficient that dry panning because gold is much denser than the surrounding material compared to water, but compared to air all the material is relatively dense.
;m. Mercury
:Mercury is a toxic metal that is liquid at room temperature. Since it is toxic it should be avoided, however it has often been used to pull fine gold out of black sands. When mixed with black sands containing gold, the mercury will amalgamate with the gold and you will end up with a lump of mercury containing all of the gold.
;n. Troy pound
:One troy pound equals .82 regular or “avoirdupois” pounds. One troy pound also equals 12 troy ounces.
;o. Troy ounce
:The troy ounce is the standard measure of gold and other precious metals. One troy ounce equals 1.1 regular or “avoirdupois” ounces.
;p. Pennyweight (dwt)
:The pennyweight is 1/20th of a troy ounce.
;q. Grain
:A grain is 1/24th of a pennyweight.
;r. Gold fever
:What people get that causes them to keep hunting for gold. Extreme cases of "Gold Fever" have been known to cause people to do seemingly insane things such as hauling a ton of equipment over the 33 mile [[w:Chilkoot Trail|Chilkoot Trail]] during the [[w:Klondike Gold Rush|Klondike Gold Rush]].

==3. What are the following identifying characteristics of Gold.==
;a. Specific Gravity
:The specific gravity of gold is 19.3. This is almost twice the specific gravity of lead, which is 11.3 and almost 4 times the specific gravity of black sands at around 5.
;b. Color of streak
:When rubbed against the bottom of a gold pan a piece of gold will leave a yellow streak.
;c. Color
:Gold is one of only two metals that in their raw state are not silver colored. Gold in its natural state is a yellow color. The other non-silver colored metal is copper.

==4. Where are some good places on a river or stream to look for gold.==
:Gold is heavy so it is only moved by large amounts of fast water, like in the winter when a river is high or flooding. The gold will drop out of the stream wherever the water slows down, or where there is something to cause an area of low pressure in the stream. So look for gold on the downstream side of large rocks or boulders or in cracks that the gold may have dropped into and been wedged in place. Look on the inside part of bends in the stream. Imagine what the river would be like when it is full and look for gold where the water would have a chance to slow down.

==5. Make a timeline containing at least 15 items about the history of gold prospecting from 1600 until the present day.==
:The timeline should probably include the “major” gold rushes, as well as any local gold rushes, and specify when they started and how long they lasted, as well as how many people were involved and the amount of gold recovered. Other items in the time line should include things like major technological developments in prospecting, examples of this include the development and subsequent ban on hydraulic mining in California, the development of square set timbers in the Comstock silver mine, or the development of steam powered bucket dredges.

==6. Learn about gold panning by doing one of the following:==
;a. Do some gold panning. (preferred).
:Most states in the U.S. have areas where gold can be located. The best way to meet this requirement is to go to an area and actually dig up the material and pan it there. It would be best for the instructor to scout the area first and find a location where there is at least some gold available, ideally there should be at least a few flakes or specs of gold in each pan.
:Another way to meet this requirement is for the instructor to get some gold bearing material and then have the students pan it in some type of trough, the plastic pans available at your local hardware store for mixing mortar work well. You can also build a panning trough out of 2x10 lumber with a thin plywood bottom and line it with plastic.
:You can also purchase black sand concentrates from various locations on the Internet. These can be mixed with sand and gravel from a local river or stream bank and then used for panning.
:When panning don’t fill the pan completely full. It is easier, especially for beginners to start with a pan that is 1/2 to 3/4 full. You may also want to drop a small lead weight like a fishing weight into the pan. If the lead is still in the pan when the pan is down to just black sands then you can be sure that the gold is still there also.
;b. Practice panning using flattened lead or tungsten shot mixed with sand (preferably from a river bank).
:Get some sand and gravel, from a river or stream bank if possible, and mix in a specific number of flattened lead or tungsten shot. Tungsten shot would be the best choice for two reasons if you can find it. First unlike lead, tungsten is non toxic, and second, while lead is only about half the specific gravity of gold, tungsten is almost identical at 19.62.

==7. Look up the following verses in the Bible and discuss them in relation to prospecting for gold.==
;a. Matthew 13<nowiki>:</nowiki>44-46
:44The kingdom of heaven is like treasure hidden in a field, which someone found and hid; then in his joy he goes and sells all that he has and buys that field. 45Again, the kingdom of heaven is like a merchant in search of fine pearls; 46on finding one pearl of great value, he went and sold all that he had and bought it.
;b. Matthew 6<nowiki>:</nowiki>19-21
:19Lay not up for yourselves treasures upon earth, where moth and rust doth corrupt, and where thieves break through and steal. 20But lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven, where neither moth nor rust doth corrupt, and where thieves do not break through nor steal. 21For where your treasure is, there will your heart be also.

AY Honors/Gold Prospecting/Answer Key

2008-03-20T06:29:46Z

MrJoe: Proposed requirements

{{honor_header|Unknown|2008|Recreation|North American Division}}
{{New honor warning|2008}}

==1. Create a list of equipment used for gold panning. Describe each item and tell what it is used for. The list should include at least the following.==
===a. Gold Pan===
===b. Classifier===
===c. Snuffer Bottle===
===d. Shovel===
===e. Pick===
===f. Bucket===
===g. Trowel===
===h. Pry bar===
===i. Rock hammer===
===j. Crevice Tool===
===k. Drinking Water===

==2. Define the following:==
===a. Pay Dirt===
===b. Quartz===
===c. Pyrite===
===d. Blond Sand===
===e. Black Sand===
===f. Placer===
===g. Lode===
===h. Nugget===
===i. Flake===
===j. Dust===
===k. Specific Gravity===
===l. Wet and Dry Panning===
===m. Mercury===
===n. Troy Pound===
===o. Troy Ounce===
===p. Penny weight (dwt)===
===q. Grain===
===r. Gold Fever===

==3. What are the following identifying characteristics of Gold.==
===a. Specific Gravity===
===b. Color of streak===
===c. Color===

==4. Where are some good places on a river or stream to look for gold.==

==5. Make a timeline containing at least 15 items about the history of gold prospecting from 1600 until the present day.==

==6. Learn about gold panning by doing one of the following:==
===a. Do some gold panning. (preferred).===
===b. Practice panning using flattened lead or tungsten shot mixed with sand (preferably from a river bank).===

==7. Look up the following verses in the Bible and discuss them in relation to prospecting for gold.==
===a. Matthew 13:44-46===
===b. Matthew 6:19-21===

AY Honors/Weather/Answer Key

2007-01-18T18:39:37Z

MrJoe: Added seasons diagram from wikimedia commons.

{{honor_header|1|1944|Nature General Conference 2001 Edition}}
==1. Explain how each of the following is formed:==

===a. Fog ===
[[Image:Acadia NP fog 2005-1-18.JPG|thumb|Fog in Acadia National Park]]
Relative humidity is a measure of how much water is in the air compared to how much water ''can'' be in the air. As the temperature rises, the air can hold more water, and as it drops, it can hold less. When the humidity is 100% and the temperature drops, the air can no longer hold all the water that is in it. Fog is moisture that gets squeezed out of the air when the temperature drops.
 
===b. Rain ===
[[Image:22 Regen ubt.jpeg|thumb|Rain]]
Rain forms when separate drops of water fall to the Earth's surface from clouds
 
===c. Dew ===
[[Image:Water drops on spider web.jpg|thumb|Dew on s spider web]]
Dew is water in the form of droplets that appears on thin, exposed objects in the morning or evening. As the exposed surface cools by radiating its heat to the sky, atmospheric moisture condenses at a rate greater than that of which it can evaporate, resulting in the formation of water droplets.
 
===d. Snow===
[[Image:Biella-Panoramica Zegna-Bielmonte.jpg|thumb|Snow]]
Snow is precipitation in the form of crystalline water ice, consisting of a multitude of snowflakes. Since it is composed of small rough particles it is a granular material. It has an open and therefore soft structure, unless packed by external pressure.

Snow is commonly formed when water vapor undergoes deposition high in the atmosphere at a temperature of less than 0°C (32°F). It can also be produced by falling particles of ice fog formed when the humidity in surface air freezes at very low temperatures.
 
===e. Sleet===
In Britain and other Commonwealth countries, sleet refers to snow that has partially melted on its fall to the ground, due to surrounding air that is sufficiently warm to partially melt it while falling, but not warm enough to fully melt it into rain. Thus it refers to partially melted droplets, a mixture of snow and rain. It does not tend to form a layer on the ground, unless the ground has a temperature that is below freezing, when it can form a dangerous layer of invisible ice on surfaces known as 'black ice'.

In American usage, sleet is a form of precipitation consisting of tiny frozen raindrops, or ice pellets. This is often mistaken for hail, but forms in a different fashion and is usually (but not always) smaller. This occurs when snow flakes falling through a small layer of warmer air in the atmosphere will begin to melt. They can then refreeze if they pass back into a layer of colder, sub-freezing air closer to the ground, resulting in little balls of ice. These ice balls may bounce when they hit the ground, and do not freeze into a solid mass unless mixed with freezing rain.
===f. Hail===
[[Image:Hailstorm.jpg|thumb|Hailstorm]]
Hail forms on condensation nuclei such as dust, insects, or ice crystals, when supercooled water freezes on contact. Hailstones are usually from the size of a pea to the size of a golfball.
 
===g. Frost===
[[Image:Frost-oliv.JPG|thumb|Frost]]
If solid surfaces in contact with the air are chilled below the frost point, then structures of ice grow out from the solid surface. The size of the crystals depends on time and the amount of water vapor available.
 

==2. Identify either in the sky or from pictures the following types of clouds: cirrus, cumulus, stratus, nimbus. What kind of weather is associated with each.==
<gallery>
Image:Cirrus over Warsaw, June 26, 2005.jpg|Cirrus
Image:Cumulus clouds in fair weather.jpeg|Cumulus
Image:St1.jpg|Stratus
Image:Rolling-thunder-cloud.jpg|Nimbus
</gallery>
;Cirrus: Cirrus clouds are at the highest altitudes. They often appear thin and wispy. They are associated with fair weather.

;Cumulus: Cumulus clouds are usually puffy and often have very distinct edges and usually a noticeable vertical development. They often have a popcorn-like appearance. Cells can be rather isolated or they can be grouped together in clusters. The first rain to fall out of the base of a cumulus cloud evaporates into the air beneath, cooling the air - often by several degrees. This cooled air descends, and the more it is cooled the more rapidly it descends. Thus instead of air rising into a cloud we have not only rain falling out the cloud, but air as well. This is why cool and rainy weather is assocaited with cirrus clouds.

;Stratus: Stratus clouds belong to a class characterized by horizontal layering with a uniform base, as opposed to convective clouds that are as tall or taller than wide (these are termed cumulus clouds). More specifically, the term stratus is used to describe flat, featureless clouds of low altitude varying in color from dark gray to nearly white. These clouds are essentially fog that is above ground level and are formed either through the lifting of morning fog or when cold air moves at low altitudes over a region. These clouds do not usually bring precipitation, although if sufficiently low in altitude to become fog, drizzle or mist may result.

;Nimbus: Nimbus clouds are dark, precipituous clouds. Nimbus is a Latin word meaning cloud or rain storm. These are commonly called "thunderclouds."

==3. Explain the action of a mercury or spirit thermometer, a mercury barometer, an aneroid barometer, and a rain gauge.==

==4. Why is it possible to be rainy on one side of the mountain range and dry on the other? Give an illustration for your country or region.==

===a. Why is it cooler and more moist in the mountains than in the lowlands?===

===b. From which direction do rain and clear weather usually come in your locality?===

==5. Show with the help of a diagram how the earth's relationship to the sun produces the seasons.==
[[Image:Seasons.jpg]]

==6. What causes lightning and thunder? What different kinds of lightning are there?==

==7. Show with the help of a diagram what a convection is. What is its relation to winds?==

==8. Explain how radar, satellites, and computers are used in weather forecasting.==

==9. Tell how the following can affect our weather:==

===a. Jet stream===
[[Image:Jet Stream.jpg|thumb|250px|The main jet streams flow from the west in the upper atmosphere]]
Jet streams are fast flowing, relatively narrow air currents found in the atmosphere at around 11 kilometres (36,000 ft) above the surface of the Earth. They form at the boundaries of adjacent air masses with significant differences in temperature, such as of the polar region and the warmer air to the south. For this reason, areas between the pole and the jet stream are cold, and area between the equator and the jet stream are warm. As the jet stream shifts along the north-south direction, the weather shifts as well.

Meteorologists now understand that the path of the jet stream steers cyclonic storm systems at lower levels in the atmosphere, and so knowledge of their course has become an important part of weather forecasting. Jet streams also play an important part in the creation of super cells, the storm systems which create tornados.
 

===b. Volcano eruption===
When a volcano erupts, it sends incredible amounts of volcanic ash into the atmosphere. This is enough to decrease the amount of sunlight that reaches the earth, causing a temporary (though sometimes devastating) global cooling. It also affects the intensity of the colors in the sunset for years.

==10. Make a drawing showing the water cycle in weather.==
[[Image:Water cycle.png|thumb|500px|The movement of water around, over, and through the Earth is called the water cycle.]]
The water cycle is the continuous movement of water over, above, and beneath the Earth's surface. It is powered by solar energy, and because it is a cycle, there is no beginning or end. As water moves around in the hydrosphere, it changes state among liquid, vapour, and ice. The time taken for water to move from one place to another varies from seconds to thousands of years, and the amount of water stored in different parts of the hydrosphere ranges up to 1.37 billion km³, which is contained in the oceans. Despite continual movement within the hydrosphere, the total amount of water at any one time remains essentially constant.

 

==11. Make a simple wind vane or rain gauge.==

==12. Keep a weather chart for one week and record readings at 12-hour intervals. Include the following:==

===a. Temperature===

===b. Moisture (dew, fog, rain, frost, or snow)===

===c. Cloud formation===

===d. Wind direction===
==References==

[[Category:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]

AY Honors/Radio Electronics/Answer Key

2007-01-10T19:02:01Z

MrJoe: Added "4th band" to the Tolerance band header.

{{honor_header|2|1938|Vocational General Conference 2001 Edition}}

== 1. Identify at least 20 symbols used in electronics. ==

[[Image:AY_Radio_Electronics_Symbols.png]]

== 2. Identify the value of resistors by the color code ==

From Wikipedia

The value of a resistor is marked on the device itself by using bands of colors.

[[Image:Resistor_bands.png]]

band '''A''' is first significant figure of resistance value in ohms 
band '''B''' is the second significant figure 
band '''C''' is the decimal multiplier 
band '''D''' if present, indicates tolerance of value in percent (no color means 20%)

Resistors manufactured for military use may also include a fifth band which indicates component failure rate (reliability); refer to MIL-STD-199 for further details.

The Standard EIA Color Code Table per EIA-RS-279 is as follows:
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"
!Color!!1st band!!2nd band!!3rd band (Multiplier)!!4th band (Tolerance)!!Temp. Coefficient
|- bgcolor = "#000000"
|[[Black]]||0||0||×100|| || 
|- bgcolor = "#B8860B"
|[[Brown]] ||1||1||×101||±1% (F) ||100 ppm
|- bgcolor = "#FF0000"
|[[Red]] ||2||2||×102||±2% (G) ||50 ppm
|- bgcolor = "#FFA500"
|[[Orange (colour)|Orange]]||3||3||×103|| ||15 ppm
|- bgcolor = "#FFFF00"
|[[Yellow]]||4||4||×104||  ||25 ppm
|- bgcolor = "#9ACD32"
|[[Green]] ||5||5||×105||±0.5% (D) || 
|- bgcolor = "#6495ED"
|[[Blue]] ||6||6||×106||±0.25% (C)|| 
|- bgcolor = "#EE82EE"
|[[Violet (color)|Violet]]||7||7||×107||±0.1% (B) || 
|- bgcolor = "#A0A0A0"
|[[Gray (color)|Gray]] ||8||8||×108||±0.05% (A)|| 
|- bgcolor = "#FFFFFF"
|[[White]] ||9||9||×109||  || 
|- bgcolor = "#FFD700"
|[[Gold (color)|Gold]] || || ||×0.1 ||±5% (J) || 
|- bgcolor = "#C0C0C0"
|[[Silver (color)|Silver]]|| || ||×0.01 ||±10% (K) || 
|-
|None || || ||  ||±20% (M) || 
|}

A useful mnemonic for remembering the first ten color codes is "'''B'''etter '''B'''e '''R'''ight '''O'''r '''Y'''our '''G'''reat '''B'''ig '''V'''enture '''G'''oes '''W'''est", where the first letter matches the first letter of the color code, by order of increasing magnitude.

Resistors are measured in ohms, so ''yellow violet red brown'' means 4,700 ohms, 1% tolerance.

== 3. Demonstrate proper soldering techniques ==
Soldering is a way of semi-permanently connecting electronic components together or to a circuit board. It involves heating the solder to its melting point and letting it re-solidify on the components themselves. The heating is done with a soldering iron.

Begin by turning on the soldering iron and waiting until it is hot enought to melt solder. You can test this by touching some solder to the tip of the iron. Clean the tip of the soldering iron by wiping it on a wet sponge. This may be repeated often when soldering a lot of joints.

The connection should also be bright and clean before attempting to solder them. They are often clean enough and require no attention, but if you have difficulty getting the solder to stick, clean them with some solder flux.

Place the tip of the iron on the components you wish to connect and heat them both. Do this while simultaneously touching the solder to the components - do not touch the solder to the iron. The goal is to heat the components to the point where they are able to melt the solder themselves. Otherwise you will end up with a "cold" solder joint which will fail sometime in the future.

If soldering wires, twist them together first. Although solder has a small amount of mechanical strength, it is not sufficient to withstand very much stress. Therefore, it should not be relied upon for anything other than making an electrical connection. If the joint is stressed, it can easily fail.

And always remember - solder is HOT, as are freshly soldered electronic components. Failure to be careful may result in a nasty burn.

== 4. Explain the use and operation of various important components in electronics such as resistors, variable capacitors, fixed capacitors, coils, transistors, integrated circuits, diodes, and transformers. ==
=== Resistor ===
The function of a resistor is to limit the current in a circuit. Resistors can also be combined into "voltage divider" circuits by placing them in series.

=== Fixed Capacitor ===
A fixed capacitor can be used to hold a charge. They are often used to smooth noise out of power supply circuits by placing them in parallel with the power supply. A capacitor cannot pass DC if it is placed in series. This is because the impedence of a capacitor varies with the frequency, and at zero Hertz (DC), its impedence is infinite. Large capacitors have less impendence at a given frequency than a small capacitor, and because of this, capacitors can be used in "frequency selective circuits" such as filters.

The value of a capacitor is measured in farads, or more commonly, in microfarads. A microfarad is a millionth of a farad. Large capacitors have tens or hundreds of microfarads. Smaller capacitors are measured in picofarads (a picofarad is a millionth of a microfarad, or a trillionth of a farad). The microfarad is often abbreviated as μF and pricofarads are often abbreviated as pF.

=== Variable Capacitor ===
A variable capacitor can be used in a frequency selective circuit where the user has control over the selected frequency. An example of this would be in a radio or television tuner.

=== Coil ===
A coil is also known as an inductor. The impedence through a coil is also frequency dependent, but in the opposite way as in a capacitor. At DC, an inductor has nearly zero impedence, and the impedence increases with higer frequencies. Inductors are often used in conjunction with capacitors in frequency selective applications. They are also often used for filtering out noise from power supplies. Since a power supply is supposed to provide a constant voltage (0 Hertz), an inductor can be placed in series between the supply and the load. The inductor will absorb the higher frequencies so that the load does not see them.

Inductors are measured in henries, which is abbreviated as H.

=== Transistor ===
A transistor has two basic applications - it can be used as a switch and it can be used as an amplifier.

There are two basic types of transistors, bipolar and field effect.

A bipolar transistor has three terminals: the base, the collector, and the emitter. Current flowing from the base to the emitter controls the amount that can flow from the collector to the emitter. If no current flows from the base to the emitter, no current can flow from the collector to the emitter. This is how a bipolar transistor can be used as a switch.

There are two types of bipolar transistors: NPN and PNP. In an NPN bipolar transistor, the current flowing from the collector to the emitter is proportional to the current flowing from the base to the emitter. A small signal can be amplified by injecting it into the base of the transistor. In this case, the current from the collector to the emitter is an amplified version of the current flowing from the base to the emitter.

A PNP bipolar transistor works the same way as an NPN except that the direction of current flow is reversed - that is, it flows from the emitter to the base, and from the emitter to the collector. In the case of a PNP transistor, it helps to think about "pulling" current out of the base rather than "injecting" it into the base.

A field effect transistor is similar to a bipolar transistor. There are two types of field effect transistors (FETs): N-channel, and P-channel. They too have three terminals: the gate, the drain, and the source. If a voltage is applied between the gate and the source of an N-channel FET , the resistance from the drain to the source is reduced. If enough voltage is applied between the gate and the source, current can flow from the drain to the source unimpeded. If no voltage is applied, no current can flow from the drain to the source.

In a P-channel FET, the voltages and currents are reversed - that is, when the gate is more negative than the source, current can flow from the source to the drain.

=== Integrated Circuit ===
An integrated circuit - or "chip" is a collection of transistors and resistors etched into a silicon (or other semiconducting material) chip. Very complicated circuits can be built by combining many transistors onto a single chip. The number of transistors that can be put on a single chip is well over a million.

=== Diode ===
A diode is a device that allows current to flow in one direction, but not in the other. This can be used in constructing an AC to DC converter, or for protecting a circuit from outside voltage sources.

=== Transformer ===
A transformer consists of one or more coils located within close proximity to one another. When current passes through a coil, it generates a magnetic field. When the current varies, so does the magnetic field. When a varying magenetic field is set up near a coil, a current is induced in that coil. By placing two coils in a common magnetic field and injecting a varying current into one (the primary), a proportional current is induced in the other (the secondary). The ratio depends on how many turns each coil has. If a transformer boosts the voltage, it will reduce the current, and if it reduces the voltage, it will increase the current. Thus, the power through the transformer is preserved (other than a loss). Electric companies transmit power by passing the electricity through step up transformers so that less current (but very high voltage) can be transmitted over long distances. This decreases power loss through the transmission lines which have fixed resistance. The voltage is stepped down again before it is delivered to a customer.

Transformers are also used to isolate two circuits so that only AC passes between them and their DC power supplies do not interfere with one another.

== 5. Know and understand Ohm's Law. ==
If a voltage is applied across a resistor, current will flow through it. Ohm's law describes the relationship between this current, voltage, and resistance. It can be written as

<math> v = i r </math>

Where v is volatage (measured in volts), i is current (measured in amps), and r is resistance (measured in ohms). The equation can also be written as

<math> i = \frac{v}{r} </math>

and

<math> r = \frac{v}{i}</math>

Basically, it means that if the voltage is held constant and the resistance is decreased, the current is increased. Or if the resistance is held constant and the current is increased, the voltage will also increase.

== 6. Determine how to correctly place or pin integrated circuits, transistors, diodes, and capacitors in a circuit board. ==
=== Integrated Circuits ===
Integrated circuits usually have some means of indicating where "pin 1" is on the device. Once pin 1 is located, the remaining pins are numbered going counter-clockwise around the device. On a DIP, pin one is located to the left of a notch milled into the top of the IC as shown below:

[[Image:Pin_one_indicator.png|Pin one indicator on an 8-pin DIP ]]

=== Transistors ===
Transistors come in a variety of packages. To determine which pin is the base, collector, and emitter (bipolar transistors) or gate, source, and drain (field effect transistors), refer to the device's data sheet.

=== Diodes ===
A diode is usually marked with a stripe near its cathode. Current flows from the anode to the cathode, but not from the cathode to the anode. The stripe can be interpreted to look like a gate that won't let the current enter.

=== Capacitors ===
Only polarized capacitors are "pinned," and care must be taken to not plug them in backwards. If an electrolytic capacitor is charged in reverse, it can explode. Polarized capacitors are often marked with a stripe showing which terminal is the cathode (negative terminal). Sometimes the stripe will connect the cathode and the anode, but it will have arrows or minus signs on the stripe indicating direction of current flow (anode to cathode). In a schematic, the curved plate of the capacitor represents the cathode and the straight plate represents the anode.

[[Image:Polarized_capacitors.jpg|Polarized Capacitors]]

In the picture above, the cathode of the black capacitor is on the right. The cathode of the blue capacitor is toward the bottom.

== 7. What is meant by a parallel and a series circuit? ==
A series circuit is a circuit in which the components are placed end-to-end. A parallel circuit connects both terminals of two components together.

[[Image:Series_parallel_resistors.png|Series and Parallel Circuits]]

In a series circuit the current flowing through both devices will be equal, but the voltage across them will be different if the resistances are different.

In a parallel circuit, the voltage across the two elements will be identical, but the current divides between them. Some current goes through the top, the rest goes through the bottom.

== 8. From a kit or from scratch make two of the following: ==
Good places to find components for the projects detailed below include [http://www.radioshack.com Radio Shack], [http://www.mouser.com Mouser], [http://www.digikey.com Digikey], and [http://www.jameco.com Jameco]. All of these suppliers will sell to hobbyists in small quantities.

Another option for building these is to buy a kit. You can buy kits for individual projects or you can buy general purpose kits that will let you experiment with many different circuits. Check with Radio Shack to see their current offerings. Electronics kits can also be found at toy stores, especially those that emphasize "learning" toys. Such suppliers include Toys R Us and Imaginarium, both of which offer kits over the Internet via Amazon.

=== Photocell Guard or Counter ===
The Photocell Guard circuit is a photo sensitive switch that will either turn on or turn off some device. In modern terminology, it would be called a photo-sensitive switch. A Photocell Counter is a circuit which counts the number of times a photo-sensitive switch is activated. In modern terminology, it would be called a Photo-sensitive Counting Circuit.

[[Image:Photo_detector.png|Photo Detector]]

In this circuit, R2 is a cadium sulfide cell (CdS cell) - that is, a light-sensitive resistor. When exposed to light, the resistance of the cell decreases. In darkness, the cell has a higher resistance. R1 and R2 together form a voltage divider circuit. As the light striking CdS cell gets brighter, the voltage at the common terminal decreases. As it gets darker, the voltage increases. This voltage is applied to the positive terminal of a comparator IC. The negative terminal of the comparator is connected to the wiper of a potentiometer which forms a second voltage divider circuit. This voltage can be adjusted by tuning the potentiometer. When the light striking the CdS cell gets bright enough, it causes the voltage on the positive terminal to fall below the voltage on the negative terminal. This causes the output of the comparator to go to zero volts, thus lighting the LED. When it gets dark again, the LED will turn off.

The action of the LED can be reversed (on when dark, off when bright) by reversing the positions of R1 and R2 (the CdS cell), by swapping the positive and negative terminals of the comparator, or by connecting the LED through a resistor to ground instead of connecting it through a resistor to power.

=== Siren ===
[[Image:Siren_circuit.png|Siren Circuit]]
 
The circuit presented here looks intimidating at first glance, but as with most things, when it is broken down into smaller parts, it's a lot easier to understand.

The first thing to note is that this circuit requires a bipolar power supply - that is, a power supply that can provide both positive and negative voltages. This is accomplished here with two batteries. The circuit was tested with voltages ranging from ±4.5V to ±12V, so a pair of 9 volt batteries works pretty well.

Moving to the right we come to an op-amp configured as a low-frequency oscillator. This oscillator, in conjunction with the transistor Q1 controls the frequency of a second oscillator (denoted as the "Audio Frequency Oscillator" in the schematic.

The frequency of the low-frequency oscillator is set by the capacitor C1, and the resistors R1, R2, and R3. When the output of the amplifier (at pin 1) is high, C1 charges through R1. When the voltage across C1 exceeds the threshold voltage on the positive terminal of the op-amp, the output will go low. When this happens, C1 will then discharge though R1 and the voltage at the positive terminal will change to a negative value. When C1's voltage drops below the threshold voltage at the positive terminal, the output switches high again, and the cycle repeats. The threshold voltage at the positive terminal is set by the ratio of R1 and R2, as well as by the output of the amplifier:

<math>V_{thresh} = \frac{R1}{R1+R2} \times V_{out}</math>

If the voltage at the output of the low-frequency oscillator is observed on an oscilloscope, it will be shown as a square wave, oscillating between the two battery supply voltages. If this value were used to drive the base of Q1, the transistor would switch suddenly between full-on and full-off, and this would cause the audio oscillator's frequency to jump suddenly between two values (this makes it sound more like a cell phone ringing than a siren - try it!). To get a siren-effect, we need a smooth frequency transition, so the base of the transistor is driven with the voltage on the capacitor C1 which is a triangle wave.

The next portion of the circuit to consider is the audio frequency oscillator. This circuit is almost exactly the same as the low-frequency oscillator, except that the RC values have been changed so that it oscillates at a higher frequency, and the voltage divider circuit that sets the threshold voltage at the positive terminal (pin 5) is modified. The lower half of this voltage divider includes a transistor. As the transistor turns on, the resistance of the lower half of the voltage-divider is changed, and this will change the frequency of the audio oscillator. Thus, the pitch of the audio will increase and decrease at a rate set by the low-frequency oscillator.

Finally, we come to the power amplifier. This is a simple unity-follower op-amp, and its purpose is to drive the speaker and to isolate it from the audio oscillator. If the speaker were connected directly to the output of the audio oscillator, it would change the characteristics of that section, and we would not hear the siren effect.

=== Simple voltmeter ===
This link has some material on using an LM3914 as a
[http://www.electronics-tutorials.com/devices/lm3914.htm Bar Graph Meter].

Here's another link for building a
[http://braincambre500.freeservers.com/ddv.htm Digital Dashboard Meter].

There are several analog to digital converter (including the MAX136, MAX1496, and ICL7107) chips that will directly drive any of several 7-segment LED displays. A web search of these part numbers (or search for "3.5 digit LED" for other devices) should turn up a data sheet, and most data sheets have "typical application" sections showing how these can be connected.

=== Pressure sensor ===
=== Simple DC power supply ===
[[Image:Simple dc power supply schematic.png|Schematic of a Simple DC Power Supply]]

In this DC power supply, household current (120VAC, 60Hz in North America) is applied to the power cord on the left. The fuse protects the circuit and '''should not be omitted'''. The voltage is then stepped down by the power transformer. Power transformers are available at Radio Shack and at hardware stores (see the doorbell section). Try to select a transformer that will output a voltage close to but a little higher than the desired DC output voltage.

Once the voltage has been stepped down, it goes through a network of diodes set up as a "full bridge rectifier." The diodes direct current to the top of the network and allow it to return through the bottom, regardless of whether the input voltage is positive or negative.

The capacitor then smoothes out the voltage. Without the capactitor, the output from the diode network would continually drop to zero, and then rise back up to its peak value. The capacitor averages this out, giving a smoothed DC value.

The next element in the circuit is an LM7805, a 5-volt linear voltage regulator. This can be replaced with similar devices to get different voltages (i.e., an LM7812 for 12V, an LM7809 for 9 volts, etc). The LM7805 will output a steady 5 Volts as long as the input voltage is sufficiently high. The transformer should be chosen such that the voltage input to the regulator is not much higher than 5V (6V or 7V would be good). Excess voltage is dropped across the device's input and output terminals, and is converted to heat. The greater this voltage, the more heat the device has to dissipate. Since it can only dissipate a finite amount of heat, this in effect limits the amount of power this circuit can provide. Attaching a heat sink to the LM7805 will also help.

The circuit should be mounted in some sort of enclosure to protect the 120VAC input power terminals. The power terminals themselves should be wrapped in electrical tape or in heat shrink tubing for additional protection.

=== Simple transistor radio ===
Although this
[http://www.somerset.net/arm/fm_only_one_transistor_radio.html FM Radio Project] uses only one transistor, it is ''still'' fairly complicated. It might be better to buy a kit for this one. Check with Radio Shack.

== 9. Draw from memory, using proper symbols, the complete wiring diagram of the devices constructed in requirement 8. ==

The easiest way to commit these diagrams to memory is by understanding them. The photocell and power supplies are the easiest to understand, and if both are made, the power supply can be used to power the photocell circuit. The siren and radio circuits are somewhat more complicated, but they are also more rewarding.

== 10. List ten ways electronics are used in everyday life. ==
# Computers - for work and for play.
# Entertainment - Televisions, stereos, video games, toys, etc.
# Medical - Patient monitoring, diagnostics (MRI, CT-scans, X-rays), etc
# Industrial - motor controllers, robotics, etc.
# Appliances - microwaves, timers, ovens, refrigerators, washing machines, dryers.
# Radio Communications - police and fire radios, CB radios, fleet radios.
# Telecommunications - telephones, fax machines.
# Fire Safety - fire alarms, smoke detectors, sprinkler systems.
# Water Supply - water towers signal pumping stations, etc.
# Security - metal detectors and x-ray machines at airports, anti-theft devices in stores, security camera.
# Music - amplifiers, synthesizers, sound mixers, recording equipment.
# Traffic Control - traffic signals.
# Automotive - Air bags, antilock brakes, diagnostics, electronic ignition, etc.

==Historical Notes==
This honor was original named ''Radio Mechanics''. The name was changed to ''Radio Electronics'' in 1956.
==About the Author==
{{about_the_author_jomegat}}

[[Category:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]

AY Honors/Radio Electronics/Answer Key

2007-01-10T18:57:52Z

MrJoe: Removed 3rd band, merged with Multiplier.

{{honor_header|2|1938|Vocational General Conference 2001 Edition}}

== 1. Identify at least 20 symbols used in electronics. ==

[[Image:AY_Radio_Electronics_Symbols.png]]

== 2. Identify the value of resistors by the color code ==

From Wikipedia

The value of a resistor is marked on the device itself by using bands of colors.

[[Image:Resistor_bands.png]]

band '''A''' is first significant figure of resistance value in ohms 
band '''B''' is the second significant figure 
band '''C''' is the decimal multiplier 
band '''D''' if present, indicates tolerance of value in percent (no color means 20%)

Resistors manufactured for military use may also include a fifth band which indicates component failure rate (reliability); refer to MIL-STD-199 for further details.

The Standard EIA Color Code Table per EIA-RS-279 is as follows:
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"
!Color!!1st band!!2nd band!!3rd band (Multiplier)!!Tolerance!!Temp. Coefficient
|- bgcolor = "#000000"
|[[Black]]||0||0||×100|| || 
|- bgcolor = "#B8860B"
|[[Brown]] ||1||1||×101||±1% (F) ||100 ppm
|- bgcolor = "#FF0000"
|[[Red]] ||2||2||×102||±2% (G) ||50 ppm
|- bgcolor = "#FFA500"
|[[Orange (colour)|Orange]]||3||3||×103|| ||15 ppm
|- bgcolor = "#FFFF00"
|[[Yellow]]||4||4||×104||  ||25 ppm
|- bgcolor = "#9ACD32"
|[[Green]] ||5||5||×105||±0.5% (D) || 
|- bgcolor = "#6495ED"
|[[Blue]] ||6||6||×106||±0.25% (C)|| 
|- bgcolor = "#EE82EE"
|[[Violet (color)|Violet]]||7||7||×107||±0.1% (B) || 
|- bgcolor = "#A0A0A0"
|[[Gray (color)|Gray]] ||8||8||×108||±0.05% (A)|| 
|- bgcolor = "#FFFFFF"
|[[White]] ||9||9||×109||  || 
|- bgcolor = "#FFD700"
|[[Gold (color)|Gold]] || || ||×0.1 ||±5% (J) || 
|- bgcolor = "#C0C0C0"
|[[Silver (color)|Silver]]|| || ||×0.01 ||±10% (K) || 
|-
|None || || ||  ||±20% (M) || 
|}

A useful mnemonic for remembering the first ten color codes is "'''B'''etter '''B'''e '''R'''ight '''O'''r '''Y'''our '''G'''reat '''B'''ig '''V'''enture '''G'''oes '''W'''est", where the first letter matches the first letter of the color code, by order of increasing magnitude.

Resistors are measured in ohms, so ''yellow violet red brown'' means 4,700 ohms, 1% tolerance.

== 3. Demonstrate proper soldering techniques ==
Soldering is a way of semi-permanently connecting electronic components together or to a circuit board. It involves heating the solder to its melting point and letting it re-solidify on the components themselves. The heating is done with a soldering iron.

Begin by turning on the soldering iron and waiting until it is hot enought to melt solder. You can test this by touching some solder to the tip of the iron. Clean the tip of the soldering iron by wiping it on a wet sponge. This may be repeated often when soldering a lot of joints.

The connection should also be bright and clean before attempting to solder them. They are often clean enough and require no attention, but if you have difficulty getting the solder to stick, clean them with some solder flux.

Place the tip of the iron on the components you wish to connect and heat them both. Do this while simultaneously touching the solder to the components - do not touch the solder to the iron. The goal is to heat the components to the point where they are able to melt the solder themselves. Otherwise you will end up with a "cold" solder joint which will fail sometime in the future.

If soldering wires, twist them together first. Although solder has a small amount of mechanical strength, it is not sufficient to withstand very much stress. Therefore, it should not be relied upon for anything other than making an electrical connection. If the joint is stressed, it can easily fail.

And always remember - solder is HOT, as are freshly soldered electronic components. Failure to be careful may result in a nasty burn.

== 4. Explain the use and operation of various important components in electronics such as resistors, variable capacitors, fixed capacitors, coils, transistors, integrated circuits, diodes, and transformers. ==
=== Resistor ===
The function of a resistor is to limit the current in a circuit. Resistors can also be combined into "voltage divider" circuits by placing them in series.

=== Fixed Capacitor ===
A fixed capacitor can be used to hold a charge. They are often used to smooth noise out of power supply circuits by placing them in parallel with the power supply. A capacitor cannot pass DC if it is placed in series. This is because the impedence of a capacitor varies with the frequency, and at zero Hertz (DC), its impedence is infinite. Large capacitors have less impendence at a given frequency than a small capacitor, and because of this, capacitors can be used in "frequency selective circuits" such as filters.

The value of a capacitor is measured in farads, or more commonly, in microfarads. A microfarad is a millionth of a farad. Large capacitors have tens or hundreds of microfarads. Smaller capacitors are measured in picofarads (a picofarad is a millionth of a microfarad, or a trillionth of a farad). The microfarad is often abbreviated as μF and pricofarads are often abbreviated as pF.

=== Variable Capacitor ===
A variable capacitor can be used in a frequency selective circuit where the user has control over the selected frequency. An example of this would be in a radio or television tuner.

=== Coil ===
A coil is also known as an inductor. The impedence through a coil is also frequency dependent, but in the opposite way as in a capacitor. At DC, an inductor has nearly zero impedence, and the impedence increases with higer frequencies. Inductors are often used in conjunction with capacitors in frequency selective applications. They are also often used for filtering out noise from power supplies. Since a power supply is supposed to provide a constant voltage (0 Hertz), an inductor can be placed in series between the supply and the load. The inductor will absorb the higher frequencies so that the load does not see them.

Inductors are measured in henries, which is abbreviated as H.

=== Transistor ===
A transistor has two basic applications - it can be used as a switch and it can be used as an amplifier.

There are two basic types of transistors, bipolar and field effect.

A bipolar transistor has three terminals: the base, the collector, and the emitter. Current flowing from the base to the emitter controls the amount that can flow from the collector to the emitter. If no current flows from the base to the emitter, no current can flow from the collector to the emitter. This is how a bipolar transistor can be used as a switch.

There are two types of bipolar transistors: NPN and PNP. In an NPN bipolar transistor, the current flowing from the collector to the emitter is proportional to the current flowing from the base to the emitter. A small signal can be amplified by injecting it into the base of the transistor. In this case, the current from the collector to the emitter is an amplified version of the current flowing from the base to the emitter.

A PNP bipolar transistor works the same way as an NPN except that the direction of current flow is reversed - that is, it flows from the emitter to the base, and from the emitter to the collector. In the case of a PNP transistor, it helps to think about "pulling" current out of the base rather than "injecting" it into the base.

A field effect transistor is similar to a bipolar transistor. There are two types of field effect transistors (FETs): N-channel, and P-channel. They too have three terminals: the gate, the drain, and the source. If a voltage is applied between the gate and the source of an N-channel FET , the resistance from the drain to the source is reduced. If enough voltage is applied between the gate and the source, current can flow from the drain to the source unimpeded. If no voltage is applied, no current can flow from the drain to the source.

In a P-channel FET, the voltages and currents are reversed - that is, when the gate is more negative than the source, current can flow from the source to the drain.

=== Integrated Circuit ===
An integrated circuit - or "chip" is a collection of transistors and resistors etched into a silicon (or other semiconducting material) chip. Very complicated circuits can be built by combining many transistors onto a single chip. The number of transistors that can be put on a single chip is well over a million.

=== Diode ===
A diode is a device that allows current to flow in one direction, but not in the other. This can be used in constructing an AC to DC converter, or for protecting a circuit from outside voltage sources.

=== Transformer ===
A transformer consists of one or more coils located within close proximity to one another. When current passes through a coil, it generates a magnetic field. When the current varies, so does the magnetic field. When a varying magenetic field is set up near a coil, a current is induced in that coil. By placing two coils in a common magnetic field and injecting a varying current into one (the primary), a proportional current is induced in the other (the secondary). The ratio depends on how many turns each coil has. If a transformer boosts the voltage, it will reduce the current, and if it reduces the voltage, it will increase the current. Thus, the power through the transformer is preserved (other than a loss). Electric companies transmit power by passing the electricity through step up transformers so that less current (but very high voltage) can be transmitted over long distances. This decreases power loss through the transmission lines which have fixed resistance. The voltage is stepped down again before it is delivered to a customer.

Transformers are also used to isolate two circuits so that only AC passes between them and their DC power supplies do not interfere with one another.

== 5. Know and understand Ohm's Law. ==
If a voltage is applied across a resistor, current will flow through it. Ohm's law describes the relationship between this current, voltage, and resistance. It can be written as

<math> v = i r </math>

Where v is volatage (measured in volts), i is current (measured in amps), and r is resistance (measured in ohms). The equation can also be written as

<math> i = \frac{v}{r} </math>

and

<math> r = \frac{v}{i}</math>

Basically, it means that if the voltage is held constant and the resistance is decreased, the current is increased. Or if the resistance is held constant and the current is increased, the voltage will also increase.

== 6. Determine how to correctly place or pin integrated circuits, transistors, diodes, and capacitors in a circuit board. ==
=== Integrated Circuits ===
Integrated circuits usually have some means of indicating where "pin 1" is on the device. Once pin 1 is located, the remaining pins are numbered going counter-clockwise around the device. On a DIP, pin one is located to the left of a notch milled into the top of the IC as shown below:

[[Image:Pin_one_indicator.png|Pin one indicator on an 8-pin DIP ]]

=== Transistors ===
Transistors come in a variety of packages. To determine which pin is the base, collector, and emitter (bipolar transistors) or gate, source, and drain (field effect transistors), refer to the device's data sheet.

=== Diodes ===
A diode is usually marked with a stripe near its cathode. Current flows from the anode to the cathode, but not from the cathode to the anode. The stripe can be interpreted to look like a gate that won't let the current enter.

=== Capacitors ===
Only polarized capacitors are "pinned," and care must be taken to not plug them in backwards. If an electrolytic capacitor is charged in reverse, it can explode. Polarized capacitors are often marked with a stripe showing which terminal is the cathode (negative terminal). Sometimes the stripe will connect the cathode and the anode, but it will have arrows or minus signs on the stripe indicating direction of current flow (anode to cathode). In a schematic, the curved plate of the capacitor represents the cathode and the straight plate represents the anode.

[[Image:Polarized_capacitors.jpg|Polarized Capacitors]]

In the picture above, the cathode of the black capacitor is on the right. The cathode of the blue capacitor is toward the bottom.

== 7. What is meant by a parallel and a series circuit? ==
A series circuit is a circuit in which the components are placed end-to-end. A parallel circuit connects both terminals of two components together.

[[Image:Series_parallel_resistors.png|Series and Parallel Circuits]]

In a series circuit the current flowing through both devices will be equal, but the voltage across them will be different if the resistances are different.

In a parallel circuit, the voltage across the two elements will be identical, but the current divides between them. Some current goes through the top, the rest goes through the bottom.

== 8. From a kit or from scratch make two of the following: ==
Good places to find components for the projects detailed below include [http://www.radioshack.com Radio Shack], [http://www.mouser.com Mouser], [http://www.digikey.com Digikey], and [http://www.jameco.com Jameco]. All of these suppliers will sell to hobbyists in small quantities.

Another option for building these is to buy a kit. You can buy kits for individual projects or you can buy general purpose kits that will let you experiment with many different circuits. Check with Radio Shack to see their current offerings. Electronics kits can also be found at toy stores, especially those that emphasize "learning" toys. Such suppliers include Toys R Us and Imaginarium, both of which offer kits over the Internet via Amazon.

=== Photocell Guard or Counter ===
The Photocell Guard circuit is a photo sensitive switch that will either turn on or turn off some device. In modern terminology, it would be called a photo-sensitive switch. A Photocell Counter is a circuit which counts the number of times a photo-sensitive switch is activated. In modern terminology, it would be called a Photo-sensitive Counting Circuit.

[[Image:Photo_detector.png|Photo Detector]]

In this circuit, R2 is a cadium sulfide cell (CdS cell) - that is, a light-sensitive resistor. When exposed to light, the resistance of the cell decreases. In darkness, the cell has a higher resistance. R1 and R2 together form a voltage divider circuit. As the light striking CdS cell gets brighter, the voltage at the common terminal decreases. As it gets darker, the voltage increases. This voltage is applied to the positive terminal of a comparator IC. The negative terminal of the comparator is connected to the wiper of a potentiometer which forms a second voltage divider circuit. This voltage can be adjusted by tuning the potentiometer. When the light striking the CdS cell gets bright enough, it causes the voltage on the positive terminal to fall below the voltage on the negative terminal. This causes the output of the comparator to go to zero volts, thus lighting the LED. When it gets dark again, the LED will turn off.

The action of the LED can be reversed (on when dark, off when bright) by reversing the positions of R1 and R2 (the CdS cell), by swapping the positive and negative terminals of the comparator, or by connecting the LED through a resistor to ground instead of connecting it through a resistor to power.

=== Siren ===
[[Image:Siren_circuit.png|Siren Circuit]]
 
The circuit presented here looks intimidating at first glance, but as with most things, when it is broken down into smaller parts, it's a lot easier to understand.

The first thing to note is that this circuit requires a bipolar power supply - that is, a power supply that can provide both positive and negative voltages. This is accomplished here with two batteries. The circuit was tested with voltages ranging from ±4.5V to ±12V, so a pair of 9 volt batteries works pretty well.

Moving to the right we come to an op-amp configured as a low-frequency oscillator. This oscillator, in conjunction with the transistor Q1 controls the frequency of a second oscillator (denoted as the "Audio Frequency Oscillator" in the schematic.

The frequency of the low-frequency oscillator is set by the capacitor C1, and the resistors R1, R2, and R3. When the output of the amplifier (at pin 1) is high, C1 charges through R1. When the voltage across C1 exceeds the threshold voltage on the positive terminal of the op-amp, the output will go low. When this happens, C1 will then discharge though R1 and the voltage at the positive terminal will change to a negative value. When C1's voltage drops below the threshold voltage at the positive terminal, the output switches high again, and the cycle repeats. The threshold voltage at the positive terminal is set by the ratio of R1 and R2, as well as by the output of the amplifier:

<math>V_{thresh} = \frac{R1}{R1+R2} \times V_{out}</math>

If the voltage at the output of the low-frequency oscillator is observed on an oscilloscope, it will be shown as a square wave, oscillating between the two battery supply voltages. If this value were used to drive the base of Q1, the transistor would switch suddenly between full-on and full-off, and this would cause the audio oscillator's frequency to jump suddenly between two values (this makes it sound more like a cell phone ringing than a siren - try it!). To get a siren-effect, we need a smooth frequency transition, so the base of the transistor is driven with the voltage on the capacitor C1 which is a triangle wave.

The next portion of the circuit to consider is the audio frequency oscillator. This circuit is almost exactly the same as the low-frequency oscillator, except that the RC values have been changed so that it oscillates at a higher frequency, and the voltage divider circuit that sets the threshold voltage at the positive terminal (pin 5) is modified. The lower half of this voltage divider includes a transistor. As the transistor turns on, the resistance of the lower half of the voltage-divider is changed, and this will change the frequency of the audio oscillator. Thus, the pitch of the audio will increase and decrease at a rate set by the low-frequency oscillator.

Finally, we come to the power amplifier. This is a simple unity-follower op-amp, and its purpose is to drive the speaker and to isolate it from the audio oscillator. If the speaker were connected directly to the output of the audio oscillator, it would change the characteristics of that section, and we would not hear the siren effect.

=== Simple voltmeter ===
This link has some material on using an LM3914 as a
[http://www.electronics-tutorials.com/devices/lm3914.htm Bar Graph Meter].

Here's another link for building a
[http://braincambre500.freeservers.com/ddv.htm Digital Dashboard Meter].

There are several analog to digital converter (including the MAX136, MAX1496, and ICL7107) chips that will directly drive any of several 7-segment LED displays. A web search of these part numbers (or search for "3.5 digit LED" for other devices) should turn up a data sheet, and most data sheets have "typical application" sections showing how these can be connected.

=== Pressure sensor ===
=== Simple DC power supply ===
[[Image:Simple dc power supply schematic.png|Schematic of a Simple DC Power Supply]]

In this DC power supply, household current (120VAC, 60Hz in North America) is applied to the power cord on the left. The fuse protects the circuit and '''should not be omitted'''. The voltage is then stepped down by the power transformer. Power transformers are available at Radio Shack and at hardware stores (see the doorbell section). Try to select a transformer that will output a voltage close to but a little higher than the desired DC output voltage.

Once the voltage has been stepped down, it goes through a network of diodes set up as a "full bridge rectifier." The diodes direct current to the top of the network and allow it to return through the bottom, regardless of whether the input voltage is positive or negative.

The capacitor then smoothes out the voltage. Without the capactitor, the output from the diode network would continually drop to zero, and then rise back up to its peak value. The capacitor averages this out, giving a smoothed DC value.

The next element in the circuit is an LM7805, a 5-volt linear voltage regulator. This can be replaced with similar devices to get different voltages (i.e., an LM7812 for 12V, an LM7809 for 9 volts, etc). The LM7805 will output a steady 5 Volts as long as the input voltage is sufficiently high. The transformer should be chosen such that the voltage input to the regulator is not much higher than 5V (6V or 7V would be good). Excess voltage is dropped across the device's input and output terminals, and is converted to heat. The greater this voltage, the more heat the device has to dissipate. Since it can only dissipate a finite amount of heat, this in effect limits the amount of power this circuit can provide. Attaching a heat sink to the LM7805 will also help.

The circuit should be mounted in some sort of enclosure to protect the 120VAC input power terminals. The power terminals themselves should be wrapped in electrical tape or in heat shrink tubing for additional protection.

=== Simple transistor radio ===
Although this
[http://www.somerset.net/arm/fm_only_one_transistor_radio.html FM Radio Project] uses only one transistor, it is ''still'' fairly complicated. It might be better to buy a kit for this one. Check with Radio Shack.

== 9. Draw from memory, using proper symbols, the complete wiring diagram of the devices constructed in requirement 8. ==

The easiest way to commit these diagrams to memory is by understanding them. The photocell and power supplies are the easiest to understand, and if both are made, the power supply can be used to power the photocell circuit. The siren and radio circuits are somewhat more complicated, but they are also more rewarding.

== 10. List ten ways electronics are used in everyday life. ==
# Computers - for work and for play.
# Entertainment - Televisions, stereos, video games, toys, etc.
# Medical - Patient monitoring, diagnostics (MRI, CT-scans, X-rays), etc
# Industrial - motor controllers, robotics, etc.
# Appliances - microwaves, timers, ovens, refrigerators, washing machines, dryers.
# Radio Communications - police and fire radios, CB radios, fleet radios.
# Telecommunications - telephones, fax machines.
# Fire Safety - fire alarms, smoke detectors, sprinkler systems.
# Water Supply - water towers signal pumping stations, etc.
# Security - metal detectors and x-ray machines at airports, anti-theft devices in stores, security camera.
# Music - amplifiers, synthesizers, sound mixers, recording equipment.
# Traffic Control - traffic signals.
# Automotive - Air bags, antilock brakes, diagnostics, electronic ignition, etc.

==Historical Notes==
This honor was original named ''Radio Mechanics''. The name was changed to ''Radio Electronics'' in 1956.
==About the Author==
{{about_the_author_jomegat}}

[[Category:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]

AY Honors/Small Engines/Answer Key

2006-09-14T18:21:13Z

MrJoe: Added two stroke engine animation from commons.

{{honor_header|2|1975|Vocational General Conference 2001 Edition}}

==1. Describe the design and operation of the two-cycle engine and the four-cycle engine. ==
The four-cycle engine is easier to understand, so it is presented here first. Once the four-cycle engine is understood, it is easier to understand the two-cycle engine.
=== Four-cycle Engine===
[[Image:4-Stroke-Engine.gif|right|Four-cycle engine]]
A four-cycle engine is so named because it makes four strokes to generate power. These strokes are as follows:
# '''Intake Stroke:''' During this stroke, the piston draws a mixture of fuel and air into the cylinder. The fuel and air enters through an intake valve which opens during this stroke.
# '''Compression Stroke:''' Once the fuel and air have been drawn into the cylinder, the intake valve close and the piston returns towards the engine's head. This compresses the fuel.
# '''Power Stroke:''' When the piston reaches the top of the cylinder, the spark plug fires, igniting the compressed fuel and air mixture and causing an explosion. This explosion causes the gases to expand which powers the piston downwards again. This is where the engines power (and noise!) comes from.
# '''Exhaust Stroke:''' When the piston reaches the bottom of the cylinder, the exhaust valve opens, and as the piston returns to the top of the cylinder again, the exhaust gases are pushed out. When the clylinder reaches the top again, the four cycles are ready to repeat.

=== Two-cycle Engine===
[[Image:Two-Stroke_Engine.gif|right|Two-cycle engine]]

'''Power and Exhaust Stroke:''' In a two-cycle engine, the spark plug fires every time the piston reaches the top of the cylinder. This is the beginning of the power and exhaust cycle. As in the four cycle engine, the spark plug firing causes a compressed air/fuel mixture in the cylinder to explode, and the expanding gases drive the piston downward. As the cylinder goes down, it compresses another air/fuel mixture inside the ''crankcase'' - not inside the cylinder as in the four-stroke engine. The crankcase is the area beneath the piston, and the cylinder is the area above the piston. When the piston nears the bottom of this stroke, it uncovers an exhaust outlet and it also uncovers a passage between the crankcase and the cylinder. The compressed air-fuel mixture in the crankcase then rushes through this passage-way into the cylinder, forcing the exhaust gases out of the cylinder though the exhaust outlet. Some of the air/fuel mixture is ''also'' forced out the exhaust outlet, and this unfortunately decreases the engine's fuel efficiency and increases its pollution output. The piston's head is shaped in such a way as to minimize this waste, but it does not entirely eliminate it.

'''Intake and Compression Stroke:''' After the piston reaches the bottom of the stroke, it begins travelling upwards again, compressing the air/fuel mixture that rushed into the cylinder from the crankcase during the previous stroke, and simulataneously drawing ''more'' air and fuel into the crankcase. By the time the piston reaches the top of the cylinder, the air/fuel mixture is very highly compressed - much more compressed than it was in the crankcase. It is at this point in the cycle that the intake valve closes and the spark plug fires.

Because the crankcase is opened to the cylinder during its operation, oil in the crankcase makes its way into the cylinder where it is compressed and combusted along with the fuel. If this situation were ignored, the engine would soon burn up all its oil, leaving itself unlubricated. The engine would soon get so hot that its parts would fuse together and destroy itself. This is addressed by adding oil to the fuel (often one part oil to sixteen parts fuel). Thus the engine's oil supply is refreshed on every stroke of the piston. This unfortunately increases the pollution levels generated by two-stroke engines.

==3. Name the parts of the two-cycle engine and tell what each part does. ==
#'''Spark Plug:''' The spark plug generates an electrical spark igniting the air/fuel mixture when the piston reaches the top of the cylinder.
#''' Piston:''' The piston travels up and down inside the cylinder. Its downward motion is propelled by an explosion of air and fuel ignited by the spark plug.
#''' Rod:''' The rod connects the piston to the crankshaft.
#'''Crankshaft:''' The crankshaft converts the piston's up-and-down motion into rotary motion and transfers the engine's power to the outside of the engine.
#'''Cylinder:''' The cylinder is the space inside the engine block inwhich the piston moves. Combustion occurs at the top of the cylinder.
#'''Crankcase:''' The crankcase is the cavity in the engine block beneath the cylinder. This is where fuel is drawn into the engine prior to being forced into the cylinder.
#'''Intake Port:''' The intake port is the passage-way between the crankcase and the cylinder.
#'''Intake Valve:''' The intake valve opens to allow the air/fuel/oil mixture to enter the crankcase during the piston's up-stroke stroke, and close to prevent its escape during the piston's downstroke.
#'''Exhaust Port:''' The exhaust port is a hole in the cylinder wall through which the burnt fuel (exhaust) is expelled.
#'''Flywheel:''' The flywheel is a mass attached to the crankshaft. It preserves the engine's momentum, keeping the crankshaft turning between the explosions in the combustion chamber.
#'''Fuel Filter:''' The fuel filter captures dirt in the fuel, preventing it from entering the carburetor.
#'''Carburetor:''' The carburetor is the device that mixes the fuel and air together prior to its being transferred into the engine.

==4. List four basic fuels used in small engines, and explain their use. ==
#'''Gasoline''' is the most common fuel for small engines, especially those found on lawnmowers, snowblowers, tillers, and other garden equipment.
#'''Gasoline/oil mixture''' is used in two stroke engines. The ratio of gas to oil is usually in the range of 16:1 to 32:1. Two stroke engines are oftem found on smaller items such as chain saws and weed trimmers.
#'''Deisel''' fuel is sometimes used in larger "small" engines, such as those found on riding mowers, small tractors, or electric generators.
#'''Butane''' is used for ''very'' small engines, such as those that power Radio Controlled model airplanes.

==5. Show care and safety in fuel handling and storage. ==
References: [http://retail.petro-canada.ca/en/formyhomelifestyle/188.aspx Petrol Canada]

#Store fuel only in government-approved containers.
#Do not leave it in a car or in the back of a truck when filling it - place it on the ground. This will prevent the build-up of static electricity which can ignite the fuel.
#Do not smoke or allow anyone to smoke within 50 feet of an open fuel tank.
#Do not fill the container more than 95% full to allow room for expansion.
#Do not store a fuel container in the trunk of a car, in direct sunlight, or near an open flame or source of sparks.
#Keep the fuel nozzle in constant contact with the container when filling it. Keep the container's nozzle in constant contact with the fuel tank when adding fuel to the engine.

==6. Describe three types of ignition systems. ==
Material for this section was adapted from the Wikipedia article on [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignition_system Ignition Systems]
===Glow plug ignition===
Glow plug ignition is used on some kinds of simple engines, such as those commonly used for model aircraft. A glow plug is a coil of wire (made from e.g. nichrome) that will glow red hot when an electric current is passed through it. This ignites the fuel on contact, once the temperature of the fuel is already raised due to compression. The coil is electrically activated for engine starting, but once running, the coil will retain sufficient residual heat on each stroke due to the heat generated on the previous stroke. Glow plugs are also used to aid starting of diesel engines.

===Magneto system===
The simplest form of spark ignition is that using a magneto. The engine spins a magnet inside a coil, and also operates a contact breaker, interrupting the current and causing the voltage to be increased sufficiently to jump a small gap. The spark plugs are connected directly from the magneto output. Magnetos are not used in modern cars, but because they generate their own electricity they are often found on small engines such as mopeds, lawnmowers, snowblowers, chainsaws, etc. where there is no battery, and also in aircraft piston engines.

===Mechanical Ignition===
Mechanical ignition systems are very similar to the magneto ignition system, except that electricity is drawn from a battery rather than being induced by rotating a magnet past a coil. The battery is recharged by the engine's alternator. Mechanical systems are capable of delivering sparks to multiple cylinders which are selected by a rotor in the distributer. The advantage of a mechanical ignition system is that the timing of the spark may be adjusted to increase the engine's efficiency based on how fast it is turning.

==6. Explain why gasoline is an improper cleaning fluid. ==
Gasoline is extremely flammable and dangerous to work with. It is also a carcinogen (cancer-causing agent), so prolonged contact with it should be avoided. It can also damage plastic parts. Gasoline left on parts can burst into flame at the slightest provocation, causing an engine fire.

==7. List two acceptable cleaning fluids for small engines. ==
'''Mineral Spirits''' are often used for cleaning parts. Soaking parts in mineral spriits removes oil and grease without the need for scrubbing. Once the parts are removed from the bath, the mineral spirits quickly evaporate.

'''Environmentally Friendly Alternatives:''' There are many degreasers on the market today, and many of them are billed as "environmentally friendly." Examples include Simple Green, and various citrus-based cleaners containing [[w:en:limonene|limonene]] such as Citrus King, and Orange Power. These cleaners do require scrubbing, but they are all biodegradable.

==8. List and tell how three basic lubrication systems operate. ==
*'''Splash:''' In a splash lubrication system, dippers on the crankshaft are repeatedly submerged and lifted out of in the oil in the oil pan. This happens as the crankshaft turns. When the dippers emerge from the oil bath, oil is splashed all about the inside of the chamber where it finds its way to the pistons, rods, and other moving parts. Channels are milled in the cranshaft to direct oil flow from the dippers to the bearings in the crankshaft, as it is vital that these receive plenty of lubrication.

*'''Force Feed:''' In a Force Feed lubrication system, an oil pump sucks oil from the oil pan and forces it through a filter and then on through a system of passageways drilled into various parts of the engine. These passageways are called ''galleries.'' The galleries open to spurt the oil onto critical components such as the bearings. Galleries are also drilled from the main block and from there into the crankshaft's main bearing. This connects to another gallery drilled into the crankshaft itself. The crankshaft gallery supplies oil to the connecting rod bearings.

*'''Combination Splash/Force Feed:''' As the name suggests, a Combination Splash/Force Feed lubrication system is a combination of the two systems described above. The connection between the rod and the crankshaft are lubricated using the splash method, and the main crankshaft bearing and the pistons are lubricated using the force feed method.

*'''Full Force Feed:''' In a Full Force Feed lubrication system, galleries are drilled in the crankshaft just as in the force feed system. But these galleries are also connected to galleries drilled in the connecting rod, and then through the pistons themselves. Oil is squeezed through these galleries where it spills out onto the cylinder wall.

'''Reference:''' [http://www.tpub.com/content/construction/14264/css/14264_242.htm Integrated Publishing]

==9. List in order the steps of a general trouble-shooting procedure. ==
===Engine won't start===
Remember the acronym '''FAST''' - '''F'''uel, '''A'''ir, '''S'''park, and '''T'''iming.

*'''Fuel:''' Make sure fuel is getting into the combustion chamber. The most obvious thing is to make sure the engine is not out of gas. Then check the fuel lines, making sure they are in good shape and actually connected to what they should be connected to. If the engine is flooded (that is, it has too much fuel in the carburetor), let it sit for a while, and then try starting it again. If the engine has a fuel pump, make sure it's operating. Check that the filter is not clogged. If all of these check out, move on to the next stage in the acronym, which is '''air.'''

*'''Air:''' Make sure the choke is adjusted properly. On an engine with a manual choke, close the choke all the way and open up the throttle. Then try to start it. If it doesn't start after a couple of pulls, open the choke halfway and try again. When the engine starts, open the choke over the next few seconds until the engine runs smoothly. If it still won't start, check that the air filter is not clogged.

*'''Spark:'''

*'''Timing:'''

==10. Demonstrate that you can overhaul, inspect, and properly tune any small engine. ==
==11. Demonstrate that you know how to test and clean spark plugs and glo plugs. ==

[[Category:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book]]

AY Honors/Automobile Mechanics/Answer Key

2006-09-14T18:19:08Z

MrJoe: Added two stroke engine image from commons.

{{honor_header|2|1928|Vocational General Conference 2001 Edition}}
==1. Properly start an automobile or light truck engine with an automatic transmission and one with a standard transmission. Explain why it is necessary for the engine to have the proper oil, water, fuel, and battery pressures and levels for proper engine operation.==
===Starting an Automatic===
To start a vehicle with an automatic transmission, sit in the driver's seat and make sure the vehicle is in ''Park''. Insert the key in the ignition and turn it clockwise as far as it will go. The engine should crank. Do not depress the gas pedal. As soon as the engine starts, release the key. To turn it off, turn the key counter-clockwise.

===Starting a Manual===
To start a vehicle with a manual transmission, sit in the driver's seat and push the clutch pedal all the way in with the left foot. The clutch pedal is the third one from the right, and this is often the one farthest to the left (although some vehicles have the parking brake to the left of the clutch).

Make sure the parking brake has been applied. Inexperienced drivers should also shift the vehicle into neutral so that if the foot slips off the clutch after the engine starts, the car does not move. Even with the vehicle in neutral, it is still important to depress the clutch, as many autos have a switch in the clutch which prevents the engine from starting unless the clutch is depressed. Insert the key in the ignition and turn it clockwise as far as it will go. The engine should crank. Do not depress the gas pedal, but leave the clutch pedal depressed. As soon as the engine starts, release the key. To turn it off, turn the key counter-clockwise.

===Importance of Proper Pressures and Levels===
'''Oil''' keeps the engine lubricated and reduces friction between the moving parts of the engine. Friction causes heat, so if there is insufficient oil pressure in the engine, it will quickly overheat. Running an engine without oil for any amount of time will damage it, and doing so for an extended period will destroy it.

'''Water''' circulates through the engine to cool it. Running an engine too hot will dmage it.

'''Fuel''' is what makes the engine go. If the vehicle has insufficient fuel pressure, the fuel will not flow into the combustion chamber at the proper rate.

The '''Battery''' provides energy to run the engine's starter. If the battery's voltage level is low, it may not be able to turn the starter.

==2. Explain the principles of four- and two-cycle engines and the difference between gasoline and diesel engines. Explain the major differences between carburetor fuel systems and fuel-injection systems.==
=== Four-cycle Engine===
[[Image:4-Stroke-Engine.gif|right|Four-cycle engine]]
A four-cycle engine is so named because it makes four strokes to generate power. These strokes are as follows:
# '''Intake Stroke:''' During this stroke, the piston draws a mixture of fuel and air into the cylinder. The fuel and air enters through an intake valve which opens during this stroke.
# '''Compression Stroke:''' Once the fuel and air have been drawn into the cylinder, the intake valve close and the piston returns towards the engine's head. This compresses the fuel.
# '''Power Stroke:''' When the piston reaches the top of the cylinder, the spark plug fires, igniting the compressed fuel and air mixture and causing an explosion. This explosion causes the gases to expand which powers the piston downwards again. This is where the engines power (and noise!) comes from.
# '''Exhaust Stroke:''' When the piston reaches the bottom of the cylinder, the exhaust valve opens, and as the piston returns to the top of the cylinder again, the exhaust gases are pushed out. When the clylinder reaches the top again, the four cycles are ready to repeat.

=== Two-cycle Engine===
[[Image:Two-Stroke_Engine.gif|right|Two-cycle engine]]

'''Power and Exhaust Stroke:''' In a two-cycle engine, the spark plug fires every time the piston reaches the top of the cylinder. This is the beginning of the power and exhaust cycle. As in the four cycle engine, the spark plug firing causes a compressed air/fuel mixture in the cylinder to explode, and the expanding gases drive the piston downward. As the cylinder goes down, it compresses another air/fuel mixture inside the ''crankcase'' - not inside the cylinder as in the four-stroke engine. The crankcase is the area beneath the piston, and the cylinder is the area above the piston. When the piston nears the bottom of this stroke, it uncovers an exhaust outlet and it also uncovers a passage between the crankcase and the cylinder. The compressed air-fuel mixture in the crankcase then rushes through this passage-way into the cylinder, forcing the exhaust gases out of the cylinder though the exhaust outlet. Some of the air/fuel mixture is ''also'' forced out the exhaust outlet, and this unfortunately decreases the engine's fuel efficiency and increases its pollution output. The piston's head is shaped in such a way as to minimize this waste, but it does not entirely eliminate it.

'''Intake and Compression Stroke:''' After the piston reaches the bottom of the stroke, it begins travelling upwards again, compressing the air/fuel mixture that rushed into the cylinder from the crankcase during the previous stroke, and simulataneously drawing ''more'' air and fuel into the crankcase. By the time the piston reaches the top of the cylinder, the air/fuel mixture is very highly compressed - much more compressed than it was in the crankcase. It is at this point in the cycle that the intake valve closes and the spark plug fires.

Because the crankcase is opened to the cylinder during its operation, oil in the crankcase makes its way into the cylinder where it is compressed and combusted along with the fuel. If this situation were ignored, the engine would soon burn up all its oil, leaving itself unlubricated. The engine would soon get so hot that its parts would fuse together and destroy itself. This is addressed by adding oil to the fuel (often one part oil to sixteen parts fuel). Thus the engine's oil supply is refreshed on every stroke of the piston. This unfortunately increases the pollution levels generated by two-stroke engines.

===Gasoline verses Diesel Engines===
In many respects, the four-stroke gasoline engine and the four-stroke diesel engine are very similar. They both follow an operating cycle that consists of intake, compression, power, and exhaust strokes. They also share in the same system for intake and exhaust valves. The fuel and air mixture is ignited by the heat generated by the compression stroke in a diesel engine versus the use of a spark ignition system on a gasoline engine. The diesel engine needs no ignition system. For this reason, the gasoline engine is referred to as a spark ignition engine and a diesel engine is referred to as a compression ignition engine.

The fuel and air mixture is compressed to about one-twentieth of its original volume in a diesel engine. In contrast, the fuel and air mixture in a gasoline engine is compressed to about one-eighth of its original volume. The diesel engine must compress the mixture this tightly to generate enough heat to ignite the fuel and air mixture.

The gasoline engine mixes the fuel and air before it reaches the combustion chamber. A diesel engine takes in only air through the intake port. Fuel is put into the combustion chamber directly through an injection system. The air and fuel then mix in the combustion chamber.

The engine speed and the power output of a diesel engine are controlled by the quantity of fuel admitted to the combustion chamber. The amount of air is constant. This contrasts with the gasoline engine where the speed and power output are regulated by limiting the air entering the engine.

===Carburator verses Fuel Injection Systems===
'''The carburetor''' serves the following basic functions:
#The carburetor mixes fuel and air Into the correct proportions for the most efficient use by the engine. The carburetor also must constantly vary the mixture proportions to meet the engine’s needs as Its speed and load requirements vary.
#The carburetor regulates engine speed and power output.
#The carburetor atomizes the fuel as it mixes it with the air.

'''Fuel injection systems''' are an increasingly popular alternative to the carburetor for providing an air-fuel mixture. They inject, under pressure, a measured amount of fuel into the Intake air, usually at a point near the intake valve. Fuel injection systems provide the following advantages.
#Fuel delivery can be measured with extreme accuracy, giving the potential for improved fuel economy and performance.
#Because the fuel is injected at the intake port of each cylinder, fuel distribution will be much better and fuel condensing in the manifold will not be a problem.
#The fuel injector, working under pressure, can atomize the fuel much finer than the carburetor, resulting in improved fuel vaporization.

==3. Describe the construction of a typical gasoline engine and explain briefly the function of these units:==
===a. Engine: crankshaft, connecting rods, pistons, camshaft, valves, oil pump, carburetor, fuel injectors, ignition distributor, fuel distributor, electrical system including alternator, battery, and regulator===
[[Image:Cshaft.gif|thumb|300px|Crankshaft, connecting rods, and four pistons]]
As can be seen in the diagram to the right, the '''pistons''' drive the '''crankshaft''' via the '''connecting rods'''. The connecting rods and crankshaft convert the back-and-forth motion of the pistons into rotary motion.

The '''camshaft''' is a smaller rotating shaft with small "bumps" on it called cams. As the cams rotate, they lift and lower the valves at just the right time to allow gasses to either flow into the cylinder or escape from it.

The '''oil pump''' moves oil through the engine to keep the internal parts well lubricated.

The function of the '''carburetor''' and '''fuel injector''' were covered in requirement 3.

The '''ignition distributor''' has several jobs to do in the ignition system. First, it must close and open the primary circuit to produce the magnetic buildup and collapse in the ignition coil. Second, it times these actions so the resultant high-voltage surges from the secondary will be produced at the right time. Third, it must establish a timing sequence to direct the high-voltage surges to the proper spark plugs.

The distributor injection system used in automotive diesel engines is classed as a low-pressure system in that pumping, metering, and distribution operations take place at low pressure. The high pressure required for injection is built up by the injector at each cylinder. A suction pump lifts fuel from the tank and delivers it to the float chamber. From here a second low-pressure pump delivers the fuel to the '''fuel distributor'''. Fuel passes through the distributor to the metering pump, where it is divided into measured charges. The fuel charges then are delivered back to the distributor, where they are sent to the injectors in the proper sequence.

====Electrical system====

The '''alternator''' is an electrical generator. As the engine turns a shaft in the alternator, it generates electricity to run everything in the car's electrical system, including the headlights, onboard computers, radio, and more. It also recharges the battery.

The '''battery''' is used primarily for starting the vehicle. When the car is not running, the alternator cannot generate any electricity, so the battery must do this. It will also power the headlights, radio, and a few other things. The most common way a battery "dies" is when someone leaves the headlights on for too long with the engine off.

The '''regulator''' evens out the voltage coming out of the alternator before it is fed to the rest of the electrical system. The voltage from the alternator can vary depending on a lot of different factors, and it is the regulator's job to make sure that none of the other components have to deal with varying amounts of power. Without the regulator, the headlights would brighten and dim as the alternator's voltage varied.

===b. Difference between standard transmission and automatic transmission and how the engine torque is transmitted to both kinds of transmissions; the purpose of overdrive===
The transmission couples the engine to the drive shaft and has to main functions:
#Control direction of travel (forward or revers)
#Provide the operator with a selection of gear ratios between engine and wheels so that the vehicle can operate at best efficiency under a variety of driving conditions and loads.

In a vehicle with a '''standard transmission''' the driver selects the desired gear manually. In a vehicle with an '''automatic tranmission''' the transmission makes the gear selection itself depending on throttle position, vehicle speed, and the position of the shift control lever.

In both cases, engine torque is transmitted to the wheels via a clutch. Automotive clutches depend on friction for their operation, whether it be solid friction as in the conventional clutch (found on a standard transmission), or fluid friction and inertia as utilized in the fluid coupling and torque converter (found on an automatic transmission).

'''Overdrive''' can refer to two different things. An overdrive is a device which was commonly used on rear-wheel drive automobiles to allow the choice of an extra-high overall gear ratio for high speed cruising, thus saving fuel, at the cost of less torque.

It also refers to a combination of gearing inside a transmission or transaxle which results in the output speed being greater than the input speed. In the latter case, "overdrive" does not refer to a physically separate identifiable part/assembly.

===c. Difference between rear wheel drive and front wheel drive===
If you put a car on a hydraulic lift, raised all four wheels off the ground, turned on the engine, and put it in gear, the rear wheels of rear-wheel drive vehicle would turn, while the front wheels of a front-wheel drive vehicle would turn. In a four-wheel drive vehicle, all four wheels would spin. The terms simply indicate which wheels are connected to the engine via the transmission.

===d. Difference between drum brakes and disk brakes, standard brakes and power brakes, and the parking brake===
[[Image:Drum Brake parts.jpg|thumb|400px|Drum Brakes]]
The diagram on the right shows the parts of a '''drum brake''' system. The brake is taken apart in this photo showing the brake drum on the left, and the brake shoes on the right. In operation, the shoes fit inside the drum. The drum rotates with the wheel, and the shoes are held stationary. When the brakes are applied, the shoes press against the inside surface of the drum, and the friction produced slows the wheels, stopping them ultimately.
 
[[Image:Disk brake dsc03680.jpg|thumb|400px|Disc Brakes]]
The diagram on the right shows the parts of a '''disk brake''' system. Here, the disk (gold) rotates with the wheel, and a stationary pair of ''calipers'' (red) squeeze both sides of the disc.
 
In '''standard brakes''' the energy supplied by the operator’s foot in pushing down on the brake pedal is transferred to the brake mechanism on the wheels by various means. A mechanical hookup has been used since the earliest motor vehicles, but hydraulic pressure is used most extensively at the present time. Mechanically operated braking systems are obsolete on today’s automobiles, but these systems may be used for a portion of the braking systems in many vehicles.

'''Power braking''' systems are designed to reduce the effort required to depress the brake pedal when stopping or holding a vehicle stationary. Most power brake systems use the difference in pressure between intake manifold vacuum and atmospheric pressure to develop the additional force required to decrease brake pedal pressure. When a vehicle is powered by a diesel engine, the absence of intake manifold vacuum requires the use of an auxiliary vacuum pump. This type of pump usually is driven by the engine or by an electric motor.

The '''parking brake''' usually is operated by an auxiliary foot pedal or hand lever located in the driver compartment. This brake mechanism is designed to keep the vehicle stationary when the operator is not present. It is usually integrated into the disk or drum brake system (which ever is used) and locks in place until released by the operator.

==4. Perform typical automotive maintenance as listed below:==
===a. Check engine and transmission oil levels.===
There are usually two dipsticks in the engine compartment for checking the engine oil and transmission oil levels. Once the dipstick is located, simply pull it out, wipe it clean on a rag or paper towel, reinsert it, pull it out again and check the level. The dipstick will be wet with oil up to the level of the fluid, and fluid levels are marked on the stick itself.

===b. Check water/anti-freeze level. Change and flush the cooling system.===
The coolant level (also known as antifreeze) can be checked by looking in a plastic reservoir off the the dise of the engine. This reservoir is usually mounted on the fender or on the front grill. It has markings on the side and an overflow area. It is also semi-transparent so that you can see the level of the coolant inside.

====Flushing the cooling system====
#The first thing you will need to do is make suer the engine is cool. It is very dangerous to open the cooling system on a hot engine, as serious burns can result. While you're waiting for the engine to cool, get a container that will hold at least two gallons. You will drain the coolant into this. Apply the parking brake.
#Set the vehicles temperature control to ''Hot''. This opens a valve in some vehicles, connecting (or isolating) the car's heater and the cooling system.
#Open the radiator cap and locate the valve at the bottom of the radiator. If there is no valve, you may have to disconnect the hose at the bottom of the radiator. Get the catch container ready, open the valve, and manuever the catch container into position to catch the coolant which should begin flowing as soon as you open the valve.
#Allow the radiator to drain. This may take a while. When coolant stops coming out, close the valve again.
#Fill the radiator with water - not with coolant. Turn on the engine, let it run until the engine's cooling fan turns on. This means the thermostat has opened and has allowed the coolant to flow into the engine. Turn off the engine. Drain the water out using the same steps as outlined above.
#Add a 50-50 mixture of water and antifreeze to the radiator until it is about an inch from the fill neck. Add more coolant to the reservoir, filling it to the "full" line. Then - with the radiator cap off - turn the engine on again while monitoring the coolant level. Add more coolant as the level drops, until it quits dropping. Replace the radiator cap.
#Take the waste coolant to a service station for recycling.
#After driving the vehicle for the first time after flushing the cooling system, let it cool and check the coolant level - both in the reservoir and by removing the radiator cap. Add coolant if it is necessary.

===c. Change engine oil and filter.===
When an engine is not running, the oil collects in an oil pan or sump at the bottom of the crankcase. There is an oil drain plug normally screwed into a drain hole at the bottom of the oil pan which is accessible from underneath the vehicle. To change the oil in a vehicle's engine, the drain plug is unscrewed to let the oil drain out of the oil pan and into a container. After the used oil drains out, the plug is screwed back into the drain hole. Some drain plugs have a replaceable washer to prevent leakage due to corrosion, rust or worn threads in the drain hole. The removable oil filter can be unscrewed at this time, often with the help of an oil filter removal tool, or in some cases, by hand. Then a new oil filter screwed back in after applying fresh oil to the sealing surface of the new filter. Then new oil is poured in through an otherwise capped opening at the top of the engine. For many cars, 4 to 5 quarts or liters of oil are needed to fill the engine. Take the old motor oil to a service station for recycling. '''It is illegal to dispose of used motor oil in the trash or dump it into the environment!'''

===d. Change a tire/wheel assembly, following proper safety procedure.===
#Locate the point on the car designed to take the jack. This is usually illustrated in the owner's manual, and is often a point on the chassis a few inches behind the front tire, or a few inches in front of the rear tire.
#Place ''chocks'' around two of the car's tires. If changing a front tire, place the chocks on the two rear tires. If changing a rear tire, place them on the front tires. Chocks are brick-sized blocks that prevent the car from rolling. Indeed, you can use about anything for a chock, so long as it will stand up to the pressure of a car being parked on it, and if it is tall enough to prevent the car from rolling over it. Bricks, blocks, blocks of wood, or even large rocks can be used as chocks, or you can use store-bought ones.
#Set the parking brake.
#Loosen the lug nuts, but do not remove them yet. It is easier to loosen them before jacking up the vehicle because the tires will remain stationary. Once the vehicle is jacked up, the wheels will easily rotate, making it more difficult to loosen the lug nuts. It may be necessary to remove the hubcap to get at the lug nuts. The hubcap usually prys off with a screw driver or with the end of the jack handle. Be careful not to damage the hubcap.
#Place the jack beneath the jack point and use it to lift the vehicle. '''Do not ever lift more than one tire from the ground at a time!''' This is a very dangerous thing to do, because it makes it ''very'' easy to knock a car off the jacks.
#Stop lifting the vehicle as soon as the tire is lifted from the ground.
#Finish removing the lug nuts.
#Once all the lug nuts have been removed, you may pull the tire/wheel assembly towards yourself and off the wheel mount. Once it's off, you can carefully roll it out of the way and get the new tire (or the same tire since this is likely an excercise, and there is likely nothing wrong with the tire in the first place).
#Lift the new tire onto the wheelmount, aligning the holes in the wheel with the bolts on the wheel mount. Push the tire into position and quickly put a lug nut or two in place. Get them all on, and finger-tight first, and then get the lug wrench out and begin tightening the first lugnut.
#After the first lug nut is tightened, move to the one on the opposite side of the wheel (or as near to opposite as you can get) and tighten it. Continue tightening the other nuts, going to opposite sides of the wheel each time so that they are tightend evenly. When they are all right, lower the jack.
#Remove the jack.
#Go around the lug nuts again, tightening them further. With the car's weight preventing the tires from rotating, you should be able to tighten them a little more (but don't overdo it).
#Congratulate yourself on a job well done.

===e. Lubricate the chassis according to the vehicle service manual.===
[[Image:Grease Gun US Dep. of Labour.jpg|thumb|200px|Grease gun]]
Lubrication of the chassis is accomplished by using a grease gun. Grease guns have a tube on them through which the grease is forced. At the end of this tube is a fitting that attaches to a grease nipple. The vehicle service manual will show you where to find the grease nipples. First wipe any dirt or foreign material from the grease nipple. Then place the grease gun on the grease nipple and force grease into it. Remove the grease gun and wipe the grease nipple clean so that no dirt accumulates there. Do this to all the grease nipples on the vehicle.
 

==5. How often should the engine oil, transmission oil, and cooling fluid be changed?==
The manufacturer specifies how often the '''oil changes''' should be made. For example, most people believe that the oil change frequency should be every 3000 miles or every 3 months, whichever comes sooner. This 3000 mile oil change interval has been relentlessly promoted by oil changing companies for decades. It had a scientific basis when engines used non-multi-weight, non-detergent oil. It no longer has any scientific basis, but it is still being promoted by certain entities, most notably the oil change industry in the United States (including car dealerships). Most manufacturers recommend oil change intervals of 6,000 miles or more for modern cars. For convenience, the oil filter is usually also replaced at the time the oil is changed.

'''Transmission fluid''' change frequency is specified in the owner's manual, but is most often every 15,000 miles.

How often the '''coolant''' should be flushed and changed is also spelled out in the owner's manual. 30,000 miles or three years is typical.

==6. Give some pointers on proper care of the vehicle and its finish, both interior and exterior.==
The owner's manual has a service schedule in it, telling you how often to change the oil, various filters, and other maintenance items. You also need to check tire inflation and tread wear on a regular basis. If you have ever pedaled a bicycle with low tires, you know that it requires ''much'' more effort to propel a vehicle with improperly inflated tires.

Keep your vehicle clean, and wax it at least once per year (in the autumn is best so the car's finish is protected from any road salt). Vaccuum the interior as often as you change the oil, as any dirt that stays in the carpet will accelerate carpet wear. Wipe vinyl and leather seats down with an appropriate cleaner and vacuum cloth seats. You should also clean the dashboard and interior door panels regularly.

==References==
Some of the material for this answer book was taken verbatim from [http://www.tpub.com/content/automotiveenginemechanics/TM-9-8000/ Principles Of Automotive Vehicles], U.S. Army Manual Tm-9-8000. As an original work of the U.S. Federal Goverment, this document is in the public domain, so it is perfectly legal and ethical to include portions of it here.

[[Category:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book]]