Difference between revisions of "AY Honors/Aboriginal Lore/Answer Key"

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'''Australian Aboriginal [[kinship]]''' refers to the system of [[law]] governing social interaction, particularly [[marriage]], in traditional Aboriginal culture. It is an integral part of the culture of every [[List of Indigenous Australian group names|Aboriginal group]] across Australia.  
+
[[Image:Alice_Springs4260.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Alice Springs Desert Park, Bush Tucker]]
 +
The  word '''Bushfood''' refers to any food native to [[Australia]] and used as sustenance by the original inhabitants, the Australian Aborigines, although it is sometimes used with the specific connotation of "food found in the [[Outback]] while living on the land". It is also called '''bush tucker'''. It includes both animal and plant foods native to Australia.
  
−
The main element is the division of [[clan]]s within the same language group into ''skin groups'', or  [[moiety|moieties]]. In its simplest form, clans are divided into two skin groups. There may be four divisions (see [[Martu (Indigenous Australian)|Martu]]), while more complex systems can be divided into eight (see [[Pintupi]] and below).
+
Examples of Australian native animal foods (meats) include [[kangaroo]], [[emu]] and [[crocodile]]. In particular, kangaroo is quite common and can be  found in many normal supermarkets at prices comparable to beef. Other animals, for example [[goanna]] and [[witchetty grub]]s, were eaten by [[Indigenous Australians|Aboriginal]] Australians and thus qualify as bushfood in every sense of the word. [[Fish]] and [[shellfish]] are culinary features of the Australian coastal communities.
  
−
The system dictates who may [[marry]] whom – it is always [[taboo]] to marry into your own skin group – creating strong [[incest]] avoidance laws and strong bonds across [[clan]]s through [[exogamous]] relations. While it can be determined at birth who will marry whom, [[love marriage]]s were not uncommon, so long as they were within the skin system.  
+
Examples of Australian native plant foods include the fruits: [[quandong]] (''Santalum acuminatum''), [[bush tomato|Australian desert raisin]] (''Solanum centrale''), [[muntries]] (''Kunzea pomifera''), [[riberry]] (''Syzygium luehmannii''), Davidson's plum (''[[Davidsonia]]'' spp.), and, [[Finger Lime]] (''Citrus australasica''). Native spices include [[lemon myrtle]] (''Backhousia citriodora''), mountain pepper (''Tasmannia lanceolata''), and, [[aniseed myrtle]] (''Syzygium anisatum''). A popular leafy vegetable is [[warrigal greens]] (''Tetragonia tetragonoides'').  
  
−
This system is invaluable, especially during [[drought]] or lack of resources, having [[cousin]]s and skin sisters and brothers in other clans. It also creates obligations to care for those people in their time of need. Even in [[Marn Grook|traditional ball games]], teams were divided along these lines.
+
Nuts include [[bunya nut]] (''Araucaria bidwillii''), and the most identifiable bushfood plant harvested and sold in large scale commercial quantities is the [[macadamia]] nut (''Macadamia integrifolia'').
  
−
Each skin group has certain [[totem]]s associated with it. Some Aboriginal groups, such as the [[Yolngu]], include plants, animals and all aspects of the environment, as part of their respective skin groups.
+
Knowledge of Aboriginal uses of [[fungi]] is meagre but ''[[Fistulina hepatica]]'' and Native bread ''([[Laccocephalum mylittiae]])'' were certainly eaten.
  
−
A person of the same skin group, of the same generation, is called "brother" or "sister". There are names for maternal aunts and uncles and different names for paternal aunts and uncles. Additionally, there are strong [[Australian Aboriginal avoidance relationships|avoidance relationships]] that need to be observed based on this system.
+
==Traditional Aboriginal use==
  
−
==Some common kinship terms==
+
[[Australian Aborigines]] have eaten  native animal and plant foods for an estimated 60,000 years of human habitation on the Australian continent (''see [[Indigenous Australian food groups]], [[Australian Aboriginal sweet foods]])''.
−
{{main|Australian Aboriginal English}}
 
  
−
*''Aunty'' and ''uncle'' are used as terms of address for older people, to whom the speaker may not be related.
+
Various traditional methods of processing and cooking are used. Toxic seeds, such as [[Cycad]] (''Cycas media'') and Moreton Bay Chestnut (''Castanospermum australe'') are processed to remove the toxins and render them safe to eat. Many foods are also baked in the hot campfire coals, or baked for several hours in ground ovens. ‘Paperbark’, the bark of ''Melalauca'' species, is widely used for wrapping food placed in ground ovens. [[Bush bread]] was made by women using many types of seeds, nuts and corms to process a flour or dough to make bread.
−
*''Brother'' and ''sister'' include close relatives of the same generation, not just siblings.
 
−
*''Cousin'' includes any relative of one's own generation.
 
−
*The combinations ''cousin-brother'' and ''cousin-sister'' are used to refer to biological cousins.
 
−
*In south-east Queensland, ''daughter'' is used to refer any woman of one's great-grandparents' generation. This is due to the cyclical nature of traditional kinship systems.
 
−
*''Father'' and ''mother'' include any relative of one's parents' generation, such as uncles, aunts, and in-laws.
 
−
*''Grandfather'' and ''grandmother'' can refer to anyone of one's grandparents' generation. ''Grandfather'' can also refer to any respected elderly man, to whom the speaker may not be related.
 
−
*''Poison'' refers to a relation one is obligated to avoid. See ''[[Mother-in-law language]]''.
 
−
*The term ''second'', or ''little bit'' in northern Australia, is used with a distant relative who is described using a close kinship term. For example, one's ''second fathers'' or ''little bit fathers'' are men of one's father's generation not closely related to the speaker. It is contrasted with ''close'', ''near'' or ''true''.
 
−
*A ''skin'' or ''skin group'' are sections which are determined by the skin of a person's parents, and determine who a person is eligible to marry.
 
−
*''Son'' can refer to any male of the next generation, such as nephews.
 
  
 +
Aboriginal traditional native food use has been severely impacted by non-indigenous immigration, especially in the more densely colonised areas of south-eastern Australia since  1788. There, loss of traditional lands has resulted in reduced access to native foods by Aborigines. This impact on traditional foods has been further accentuated by the destruction of native habitat for agriculture, and the introduction of non-native foods to Aborigines by colonists.
  
−
The skin group classification is [[cyclical]] in nature, changing with each [[generation]]. Non-Aboriginal people are often confounded to hear Aborigines refer to their great-[[grandmother]] as their [[daughter]], or their great-[[grandaughter]] as their mother. They are actually referring to the fact that those relatives are in the same skin group, as well as acknowledging the cyclical nature of the system.
+
The recent recognition of the nutritional and gourmet value of native foods by non-indigenous Australians is introducing native cuisine to white Australians, many for the first time. However, there are unresolved intellectual property issues associated with the commercialisation of bushfood.
  
−
For traditional Aborigines, this system is a major foundation of their existence and way of viewing the world. As such, if a non-Aboriginal person is around their culture for any extended period, they must be [[adoption|adopted]]. This is not strictly adoption in the Western sense, but the assignation of a skin name so that individual has a skin group and may interact with the group in the "proper way"; knowing whom to avoid, whom to call sister, etc.
+
==Colonial use==
  
−
Many Aboriginal groups, particularly in the southeast of Australia, have lost this knowledge due to their [[Stolen generation|forced removal]] to [[mission (station)|mission]]s and [[orphanage|children's homes]], where many language groups mixed with each other, and Aboriginal language and cultural practice was forbidden.
+
Bushfoods provided a source of nutrition to the non-indigenous colonial settlers, often supplementing meager rations.  However, bushfoods were often considered to be inferior by colonists  unfamiliar with the new land's food ingredients, generally preferring familiar foods from the homeland.
  
−
Below are a few examples of different kinship systems from across Australia:
+
The only Australian native food developed and cropped on a large scale is the [[macadamia nut]], with the first small-scale commercial plantation being planted in Australia in the 1880s. Subsequently, [[Hawaii]] was where the macadamia was commercially developed to its greatest extent from stock imported from Australia.
  
−
==Systems with two skin groups==
+
==Modern use==
  
−
===Pitjantjatjara===
+
In the 1970s non-indigenous Australians began to recognise the previously over-looked indigenous aspects of Australia, including native foods. Textbooks like ''Wildfoods In Australia'' by the botanist couple, Cribb & Cribb were popular and later the author [[Tim Low]] published ''Wild Food Plants of Australia''. Jenifer Isaacs wrote the book ''Bushfood'', and [[Vic Cherikoff]] wrote ''The Bushfood Handbook''.
−
The [[Pitjantjatjara]] of northern [[South Australia]] have two [[moiety]] groups:
 
  
−
:'''''ngana nt arka''''' (lit. we-bone) 'our side'
+
TV shows also made use of the bushfood theme. [[Malcolm Douglas]] was one of the first presenters to show how to 'live off the land' in the Australian Outback. Major [[Les Hiddins]], a retired [[Australian Army]] soldier popularized the idea of bush tucker as an interesting food resource. He presented a hit TV series called ''Bush Tucker Man'' on the [[Australian Broadcasting Commission|ABC]] TV network in the late 1980s. In the series, Hiddins demonstrated his research for Norforce in identifying foods which might sustain or augment army forces in the northern Australian Outback. In 1983, the University of Sydney's Human Nutrition Unit, headed by [[Jennie Brand-Miller]], also undertook a nutritional analysis programme analyzing bushfood for Aboriginal health.
−
:'''''tjanamilytjan''''' (lit. they flesh) 'their side'
 
  
−
However, they do not use skin names.
+
In the late 1970's regionally based horticulturists started to assess local native food-plants for commercial use. In the mid-1980s several Sydney restaurants began using native Australian ingredients in recipes more familiar to modern tastes. This provided the first opportunity for bushfoods to be tried by non-indigenous Australians on a serious [[gourmet]] level, and led to the realisation that many strongly flavoured bushfoods have [[spice]]-like qualities. This led to the establishment of a specialist bushfood supply chain. Some of these bushfood ingredients now feature in modern Australian cuisine, and [[Australian spices]] are being increasingly recognised internationally (see [[bushfood industry history]]).
  
−
===Yolŋu===
+
Value-added bushfood products were also developed for the domestic and export markets. The raw ingredients were initially sourced from the wild and more recently cultivated using largely organic methods with an emphasis on maintaining sustainable quantities from both sources. Many Aboriginal communities continue to be involved in the supply chain and in investigating other socially and culturally appropriate opportunities.
−
For the [[Yolŋu]] of north-east [[Arnhem Land]], life is divided into two skin groups: ''Dhuwa'' and ''Yirritja''. Each of these is represented by people of a number of different groups, each with their own lands, languages and philosophies:
 
  
−
:::{| class="wikitable"
+
The term "bushfood" is one of several terms describing native Australian food, evolving from the older-style "bushtucker" which was used in the 1970s and 1980s. The word "bushfood" was chosen to reflect the sustainable nature of the industry's products, and to help exporters with product branding. The term "authentic Australian food" is another marketing term recently coined to create further separation from the more rustic bush connotations, although "bushfood" is the most established and widespread term that describes native Australian food.
−
|- bgcolor=#efefef
+
 
−
! Skin name
+
==Native Australian food-plants listed by culinary province and plant part==
−
! Clan groups
+
 
 +
Australian bushfood plants can be divided into several distinct and large regional culinary provinces. Please note, some species listed grow across several climatic boundaries.
 +
 
 +
===Top-end===
 +
Monsoonal zone of the Northern Territory, Cape York and Western Australia.
 +
 
 +
====Fruits====
 +
{|
 +
|''Buchanania arborescens''||Little Gooseberry Tree
 +
|-
 +
|''Citrus gracilis''||Kakadu Lime
 +
|-
 +
|''Eugenia carissoides''||Cedar Bay Cherry
 +
|-
 +
|''Ficus racemosa''||Cluster Fig
 +
|-
 +
|''Manilkara kaukii''||Wongi
 +
|-
 +
|''Melastoma affine''||Blue Tongue
 +
|-
 +
|''Mimusops elengi''||Tanjong
 +
|-
 +
|''Morinda citrifolia''||[[Noni]]
 +
|-
 +
|''Physalis minima''||Native Gooseberry
 +
|-
 +
|''[[Terminalia ferdinandiana]]''||Kakadu Plum
 +
|-
 +
|''Syzygium suborbiculare''||Lady Apple
 +
|}
 +
 
 +
====Vegetables====
 +
 
 +
{|
 +
|''Cycas media''||Cycad palm seeds (Require detoxification: see [[Bush bread]] )
 +
|-
 +
|''Dioscorea alata''|| Chinese or winged yam <br> ''Dioscorea transversa''||Pencil Yam, Long Yam
 +
|-
 +
|''Dioscorea bulbifera''||Round Yam
 +
|-
 +
|''Eleocharis'' sp.||Mat-Rush, a traditional staple for [[Yolngu]]
 +
|-
 +
|''Ipomoea aquatica''||Native Kang Kong
 +
|-
 +
|''Lotus nelumbo''||[[Lotus]]
 +
|-
 +
|''Nelumbo nucifera''||[[Nelumbo|water lily]]
 +
|-
 +
|''Nymphaea macrosperma''||[[Nymphaea|water lily]]
 +
|}
 +
 
 +
====Nuts====
 +
{|
 +
|''Semecarpus australiensis''||Australian Cashew Nut
 +
|-
 +
|''Terminalia catappa''||Sea Almond
 +
|}
 +
 
 +
====Spices====
 +
 
 +
{|
 +
|''[[Eucalyptus staigeriana]]''||Lemon Ironbark
 +
|-
 +
|''Melaleuca leucadendron''||Weeping Paperbark
 +
|-
 +
|''Ocimum tenuiflorum''||Native Basil
 +
|}
 +
 
 +
===Central Australia===
 +
Arid and semi-arid zones of the low rainfall interior.
 +
 
 +
====Fruits====
 +
{|
 +
|''Capparis'' spp.||Native Caper, [[Caperbush]]
 +
|-
 +
|''[[Capparis mitchelii]]''||Wild orange
 +
|-
 +
|''Capparis spinosa <br>ssp. nummularia''||[[Wild passionfruit]]
 +
|-
 +
|''[[Carissa lanceolata]]''||Bush plum, Conkerberry
 +
|-
 +
|''Citrus glauca''||[[Desert Lime]]
 +
|-
 +
|''Enchylaena tormentosa''||Ruby Saltbush
 +
|-
 +
|''Ficus platypoda''||Desert Fig
 +
|-
 +
|''Marsdenia australis''||[[Doubah]], [[Bush Banana]]
 +
|-
 +
|''Owenia acidula''||Emu Apple
 +
|-
 +
|''Santalum acuminatum''||[[Quandong]]
 +
|-
 +
|''Santalum lanceolatum''||[[Sandalwood]]
 +
|-
 +
|''[[Solanum centrale]]''||Akudjura, Australian Desert Raisin, Bush tomato
 +
|-
 +
|''[[Solanum cleistogarnum]]''||[[Bush tomato]]
 +
|-
 +
|''[[Solanum ellipticum]]''||[[Bush tomato]]
 +
|}
 +
 
 +
====Vegetables====
 +
 
 +
{|
 +
|''Calandrinia balonensis''||Parakeelya
 +
|-
 +
|''[[Ipomoea costata]]''||Bush potato
 +
|-
 +
|''Vigna lanceolata''||[[Pencil Yam]]
 
|-
 
|-
−
|'''''Yirritja'''''
+
|''Lepidium'' spp.||Peppercresses
−
| Gumatj, Gupapuyngu, Wangurri, Ritharrngu, Mangalili,<br/>Munyuku, Madarrpa, Warramiri, Dhalwangu, Liyalanmirri.
 
 
|-
 
|-
−
|'''''Dhuwa'''''
+
|''Portulaca intraterranea''||Large Pigweed
−
|Rirratjingu, Galpu, Djambarrpuyngu, Golumala, Marrakulu,<br/>Marrangu, Djapu, Datiwuy, Ngaymil, Djarrwark.
 
 
|}
 
|}
  
−
A ''Yirritja'' person must always marry a ''Dhuwa'' person and vice versa. If a man or woman is ''Dhuwa'', their mother will be ''Yirritja'' and their father will be ''Dhuwa''. In cases where marriage does not adhere to the skin system, if a ''Yirritja'' man marries a ''Yirritja'' woman, for instance, the children take the skin that is opposite to their mother rather than the same skin as their father. The children of such a marriage will be ''Dhuwa''.
+
====Spices====
  
−
Kinship relations are also mapped onto the lands owned by the Yolngu through their [[hereditary]] [[Estate (law)|estates]] – so everything is either ''Yirritja'' or ''Dhuwa'' – every fish, stone, river, etc, belongs to one or the other [[moiety]].
+
{|
 +
|''[[Eucalyptus polybractea]]''||Blue-leaved Mallee
 +
|}
  
−
==Systems with eight skin groups==
+
====Seeds====
  
−
===Lardiil===
+
{|
−
The [[Lardiil]] of [[Mornington Island]] in the [[Gulf of Carpentaria]] have eight skin groups, shown here with some of their totems:
+
|''Acacia aneura''||[[Mulga]]
−
{{sectstub}}
+
|-
−
::{| class="wikitable"
+
|''Acacia colei''||
−
|- bgcolor=#efefef
+
|-
−
!Male skin group
+
|''Acacia coriacea''||Dogwood
−
!Totems
+
|-
−
!Can only marry<br/>female skin group
+
|''Acacia holosericea''||Strap Wattle
−
!Children will be
+
|-
 +
|''Acacia kempeana''||Witchetty Bush
 +
|-
 +
|''Acacia murrayana''||
 
|-
 
|-
−
|Ngarrijbalangi
+
|''Acacia pycantha''||
−
|''Rainbird, shooting star,<br/>egret''
 
−
|Burrarangi
 
−
|Bangariny
 
 
|-
 
|-
−
|Bangariny
+
|''Acacia retinodes''||
−
|''Brown hark, turtle''
 
−
|Yakimarr
 
−
|Ngarrijbalangi
 
 
|-
 
|-
−
|Buranyi
+
|''[[Acacia tetragonophylla]]''||Dead finish seed
−
|''Crane, salt water, <br/>sleeping turtle''
 
−
|Kangal
 
−
|
 
 
|-
 
|-
−
|Balyarriny
+
|''[[Acacia victoriae]]''||Gundabluey, Prickly wattle
−
|''Black tiger shark,<br/>sea turtle''
 
−
|Kamarrangi
 
−
|
 
 
|-
 
|-
−
|Burrarangi
+
|''Brachychiton populneus''||[[Kurrajong]]
−
|''Lightning, rough sea,<br/>black dingo''
 
−
|Ngarrijbalangi
 
−
|
 
 
|-
 
|-
−
|Yakimarr
+
|''Panicum decompositum''||native millet
−
|Seagull, barramundi,<br/>grey shark
 
−
|Bangariny
 
−
|
 
 
|-
 
|-
−
|Kangal
+
|''[[Portulaca oleracea]]''||Pigweed
−
|''[[Barramundi]],<br/>grey shark''
 
−
|Buranyi
 
−
|
 
 
|-
 
|-
−
|Kamarrangi
+
|''[[Triodia spp. ]]''||commonly known as spinifex
−
|''Rock, pelican, [[brolga]],<br/>red dingo''
 
−
|Balyarriny
 
−
|
 
 
|}
 
|}
  
−
Each Lardiil person belongs to one of these groups. Their paternal [[grandfather]]'s skin group determines their own; so a Balyarriny man or woman will have a Balyarriny grandfather. A Ngarrijbalangi person can only marry a Burrarangi, a Bangariny a Yakimarr, a Buranyi a Kangal and a Balyarriny a Kamarrangi, and vice versa for each.
+
====Insects in gall====
 +
 
 +
[[Bush coconut]]
 +
 
 +
[[Mulga apple]]
  
−
Once a person's skin group is known, their relationship to any other Lardiil can be determined. A Ngarrijbalangi is a 'father' to a Bangariny, a 'father-in-law' to a Yakimarr and a 'son' to another Bangariny, either in a social sense or purely through linearship.
+
===Eastern Australia===
 +
Subtropical rainforests of New South Wales to the wet tropics of Northern Queensland.
  
−
===Pintupi===
+
====Fruit====
−
The [[Pintupi]] of the [[Western Desert (Australia)|Western Desert]] also have eight skin groups, made more complex by distinct prefixes for male and female skin names; "Tj" for males, "N" for females. The [[Warlpiri]] system is almost the same:
 
  
−
:::{| class="wikitable"
+
{|
−
|- bgcolor=#efefef
+
|''Acronychia acidula''||[[Lemon Aspen]]
−
!Gender
+
|-
−
!Skin name
+
|''Acronychia oblongifolia''||White Aspen
−
!First marriage</br> preference
+
|-
−
!Children will be
+
|''Antidesma bunius''||Herbet River Cherry
 
|-
 
|-
−
|'''Male'''
+
|''Archirhodomyrtus beckleri''||Rose Myrtle
−
|Tjapaltjarri
 
−
|Nakamarra
 
−
|Tjungurrayi, Nungurrayi
 
 
|-
 
|-
−
|'''Female'''
+
|''Austromyrtus dulcis''||Midyim
−
|Napaltjarri
 
−
|Tjakamarra
 
−
|Tjupurrula, Napurrula
 
 
|-
 
|-
−
|'''Male'''
+
|''Carpobrotus glaucescens''||Pigface
−
|Tjapangati
 
−
|Nampitjinpa
 
−
|Tjapanangka, Napanangka
 
 
|-
 
|-
−
|'''Female'''
+
|''Citrus australasica''||[[Finger Lime]]
−
|Napangati
 
−
|Tjampitjinpa
 
−
|Tjangala, Nangala
 
 
|-
 
|-
−
|'''Male'''
+
|''Citrus australis''||Dooja
−
|Tjakamarra
 
−
|Napaltjarri
 
−
|Tjupurrula, Napurrula
 
 
|-
 
|-
−
|'''Female'''
+
|''[[Davidsonia jerseyana]]''||New South Wales Davidson's Plum
−
|Nakamarra
 
−
|Tjapaltjarri
 
−
|Tjungurrayi, Nungurrayi
 
 
|-
 
|-
−
|'''Male'''
+
|''Davidsonia johnsonii''||Smooth Davidsonia
−
|Tjampitjinpa
 
−
|Napangati
 
−
|Tjangala, Nangala
 
 
|-
 
|-
−
|'''Female'''
+
|''Davidsonia pruriens''||North Queensland Davidson's Plum
−
|Nampitjinpa
 
−
|Tjapangati
 
−
|Tjapanangka, Napanangka
 
 
|-
 
|-
−
|'''Male'''
+
|''Diploglottis campbellii''||Small-leaf Tamarind
−
|Tjapanangka
 
−
|Napurrula
 
−
|Tjapangati, Napangati
 
 
|-
 
|-
−
|'''Female'''
+
|''[[Eupomatia laurina]]''||Bolwarra
−
|Napanangka
 
−
|Tjupurrula
 
−
|Tjakamarra, Nakamarra
 
 
|-
 
|-
−
|'''Male'''
+
|''Ficus coronata''||Sandpaper Fig
−
|Tjungurrayi
 
−
|Nangala
 
−
|Tjapaltjarri, Napaltjarri
 
 
|-
 
|-
−
|'''Female'''
+
|''Melodorum leichhardtii''||Zig Zag Vine
−
|Nungurrayi
 
−
|Tjangala
 
−
|Tampitjinpa, Nampitjinpa
 
 
|-
 
|-
−
|'''Male'''
+
|''Pleiogynium timorense''||Burdekin Plum
−
|Tjupurrula
 
−
|Napanangka
 
−
|Tjakamarra, Nakamarra
 
 
|-
 
|-
−
|'''Female'''
+
|''[[Podocarpus elatus]]''||Illawarra Plum
−
|Napurrula
 
−
|Tjapanangka
 
−
|Tjapangati, Napangati
 
 
|-
 
|-
−
|'''Male'''
+
|''Planchonella australis''||Black Apple
−
|Tjangala
 
−
|Nungurrayi
 
−
|Tjampitjinpa, Nampitjinpa
 
 
|-
 
|-
−
|'''Female'''
+
|''Rubus hillii''||Broad-leaf Bramble
−
|Nangala
+
|-
−
|Tjungarayyi
+
|''Rubus probus''||Atherton Raspberry
−
|Tjapaltjarri, Napaltjarri
+
|-
 +
|''Rubus rosifolius''||Rose-leaf Bramble
 +
|-
 +
|''Sambucus australasica''||Yellow Elderberry
 +
|-
 +
|''Syzygium fibrosum''||Fibrous Satinash
 +
|-
 +
|''Syzygium luehmannii''||[[Riberry]]
 +
|-
 +
|''Ximenia americana''||Yellow Plum
 +
|}
 +
 
 +
====Vegetable====
 +
 
 +
{|
 +
|''Geitonoplesium cymosum''||Scrambling Lily
 +
|-
 +
|''[[Tetragonia tetragonoides]]''||Warrigal Greens
 +
|-
 +
|''Trachymene incisa''||Wild Parsnip
 +
|}
 +
 
 +
====Spices====
 +
 
 +
{|
 +
|''Alpinia coerulea''||Native Ginger
 +
|-
 +
|''Backhousia citriodora''||[[Lemon Myrtle]]
 +
|-
 +
|''Backhousia myrtifolia''||[[Cinnamon Myrtle]]
 +
|-
 +
|''[[Prostanthera incisa]]''||Cut-leaf Mintbush
 +
|-
 +
|''Syzygium anisatum''||[[aniseed myrtle]]
 +
|-
 +
|''Tasmannia stipitata''||Dorrigo pepper (leaf and pepperberry)
 +
|}
 +
 
 +
====Nut====
 +
 
 +
{|
 +
|''[[Araucaria bidwillii]]''||Bunya Nut
 +
|-
 +
|''Athertonia diversifolius''||Atherton Almond
 +
|-
 +
|''Macadamia integrifolia''||[[Macadamia]] Nut
 +
|-
 +
|''Macadamia tetraphylla''||Bush Nut
 +
|-
 +
|''[[Sterculia quadrifida]]''||Peanut Tree
 +
|}
 +
 
 +
 
 +
 
 +
 
 +
===Temperate===
 +
Warm and cool temperate zones of southern Australia, including Tasmania, South Australia, Victoria and the highlands of New South Wales.
 +
 
 +
 
 +
====Fruit====
 +
{|
 +
|''Acrotriche depressa''||Native Currant
 +
|-
 +
|''Billarderia cymosa''||Sweet Apple-berry
 +
|-
 +
|''Billarderia longiflora''||Purple Apple-berry
 +
|-
 +
|''Billarderia scandens''||Common Apple-berry
 +
|-
 +
|''Carpobrotus rossii''||Karkalla
 +
|-
 +
|''Eustrephus latifolius''||Wombat berry
 +
|-
 +
|''Exocarpus cupressiformis''||Native Cherry
 +
|-
 +
|''Gaultheria hispida''||Snow Berry
 +
|-
 +
|''[[Kunzea pomifera]]''||[[Muntries]]
 +
|-
 +
|''Rubus parvifolius''|| Pink-flowered Native Raspberry
 +
|-
 +
|''Sambucus gaudichaudiana''|| White Elderberry
 +
|}
 +
 
 +
====Seed====
 +
{|
 +
|''Acacia longifolia''|| Golden Rods
 +
|-
 +
|''Acacia sophorae''|| Coast Wattle
 +
|}
 +
 
 +
====Spice====
 +
 
 +
{|
 +
|''[[Eucalyptus dives]]''|| Peppermint Gum
 +
|-
 +
|''[[Eucalyptus olida]]''|| Strawberry Gum
 +
|-
 +
|''[[Eucalyptus globulus]]''|| Tasmanian Blue Gum
 +
|-
 +
|''Mentha australis''|| River Mint
 +
|-
 +
|''[[Prostanthera rotundifolia]]''|| Native Thyme
 +
|-
 +
|''[[Tasmannia lanceolata]]''|| Mountain pepper
 +
|-
 +
|''Tasmannia stipitata''|| [[Dorrigo Pepper]]
 +
|-
 +
|''Tasmannia xerophila''|| Alpine Pepper
 +
|}
 +
 
 +
====Vegetable====
 +
 
 +
{|
 +
|''Apium insulare''|| Flinders Island Celery
 +
|-
 +
|''Atriplex cinerea''|| Grey Saltbush
 +
|-
 +
|''Burchardia umbellata''|| Milkmaids
 +
|-
 +
|''Microseris scapigera''|| Murnong
 
|}
 
|}
  
−
Each person therefore has a [[patriline|patrimoiety]] and a [[matriline|matrimoiety]], a father's and a mother's skin group.
 
  
 
==See also==
 
==See also==
−
*[[Australian Aboriginal avoidance relationships]]
+
*[[Australian Aboriginal sweet foods]]
−
*[[Australian Aboriginal English]]
+
*[[Bush bread]]
−
*[[List of Indigenous Australian group names]]
+
*[[Bushmeat]], something quite different
−
*[[Noongar classification]]
+
*[[Bush medicine]]
−
*[[Warlpiri#kinship|Warlpiri kinship]]
+
*[[Indigenous Australian food groups]]
 +
 
 +
==External links==
 +
*[http://indigenousaustralia.frogandtoad.com.au/bushtucker.html Aboriginal Australia]
 +
* [http://www.bushfood.net/ Australian Bushfood and Native Medicine Forum]
 +
* [http://www.bom.gov.au/iwk/walabunnba/wantangka.shtml Aboriginal women's knowledge]
 +
*CSIRO plant profiles [http://www.cse.csiro.au/research/nativefoods/crops/index.htm]
 +
* [http://www.cherikoff.net/ Site of an industry pioneer]
 +
* [http://ausbushfoods.com/ Bushfoods Magazine]
 +
* [http://eataustralia.info Eat Australia]
 +
 
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
−
*Binnion, Joan (1979) ''The Lardil People of Mornington Island (Student Handbook)'', Aboriginal Community College, Port Adelaide.
+
* Bruneteau, Jean-Paul, ''Tukka, Real Australian Food'', ISBN 0-207-18966-8.
−
*Hansen, Kenneth C. and Lesley E. Hansen, 1979, ''Pintupi/Luritja kinship'', Alice Springs, NT, Institute for Aboriginal Development.
+
* Cherikoff, Vic, ''The Bushfood Handbook'', ISBN 0-7316-6904-5.
−
*[http://ausanthrop.net/research/kinship/ Ausanthrop kinship tutorial]
+
* Issacs, Jennifer, ''Bushfood'', Weldons, Sydney.  
−
*[http://www.ausanthrop.net/research/kinship/kinship2.php Ausanthrop]
+
* Kersh, Jennice and Raymond, ''Edna's Table'', ISBN 0-7336-0539-7.
−
*[http://www.clc.org.au/ourculture/kinship.asp Central Land Council]
+
* Low, Tim, ''Wild Food Plants of Australia'', ISBN-13: 978-0207143830
  
−
[[Category:Australian Aboriginal culture|Kinship]]
+
[[Category:Bushfood|*]]
−
[[Category:Anthropology|Australian Aboriginal kinship]]
+
[[Category:Australian cuisine]]
−
[[Category:Sociology|Australian Aboriginal Kinship]]
+
[[Category:Indigenous Australian culture]]
−
[[Category:Indigenous Australians|Kinship]]
+
[[Category:Flora of Australia]]
−
[[Category:Marriage|Australian Aboriginal Kinship]]
+
[[Category:Australian Aboriginal bushcraft]]
−
[[Category:Australian Aboriginal words and phrases|Kinship]]
 

Revision as of 14:01, 22 April 2007

Alice Springs Desert Park, Bush Tucker

The word Bushfood refers to any food native to Australia and used as sustenance by the original inhabitants, the Australian Aborigines, although it is sometimes used with the specific connotation of "food found in the Outback while living on the land". It is also called bush tucker. It includes both animal and plant foods native to Australia.

Examples of Australian native animal foods (meats) include kangaroo, emu and crocodile. In particular, kangaroo is quite common and can be found in many normal supermarkets at prices comparable to beef. Other animals, for example goanna and witchetty grubs, were eaten by Aboriginal Australians and thus qualify as bushfood in every sense of the word. Fish and shellfish are culinary features of the Australian coastal communities.

Examples of Australian native plant foods include the fruits: quandong (Santalum acuminatum), Australian desert raisin (Solanum centrale), muntries (Kunzea pomifera), riberry (Syzygium luehmannii), Davidson's plum (Davidsonia spp.), and, Finger Lime (Citrus australasica). Native spices include lemon myrtle (Backhousia citriodora), mountain pepper (Tasmannia lanceolata), and, aniseed myrtle (Syzygium anisatum). A popular leafy vegetable is warrigal greens (Tetragonia tetragonoides).

Nuts include bunya nut (Araucaria bidwillii), and the most identifiable bushfood plant harvested and sold in large scale commercial quantities is the macadamia nut (Macadamia integrifolia).

Knowledge of Aboriginal uses of fungi is meagre but Fistulina hepatica and Native bread (Laccocephalum mylittiae) were certainly eaten.

Traditional Aboriginal use

Australian Aborigines have eaten native animal and plant foods for an estimated 60,000 years of human habitation on the Australian continent (see Indigenous Australian food groups, Australian Aboriginal sweet foods).

Various traditional methods of processing and cooking are used. Toxic seeds, such as Cycad (Cycas media) and Moreton Bay Chestnut (Castanospermum australe) are processed to remove the toxins and render them safe to eat. Many foods are also baked in the hot campfire coals, or baked for several hours in ground ovens. ‘Paperbark’, the bark of Melalauca species, is widely used for wrapping food placed in ground ovens. Bush bread was made by women using many types of seeds, nuts and corms to process a flour or dough to make bread.

Aboriginal traditional native food use has been severely impacted by non-indigenous immigration, especially in the more densely colonised areas of south-eastern Australia since 1788. There, loss of traditional lands has resulted in reduced access to native foods by Aborigines. This impact on traditional foods has been further accentuated by the destruction of native habitat for agriculture, and the introduction of non-native foods to Aborigines by colonists.

The recent recognition of the nutritional and gourmet value of native foods by non-indigenous Australians is introducing native cuisine to white Australians, many for the first time. However, there are unresolved intellectual property issues associated with the commercialisation of bushfood.

Colonial use

Bushfoods provided a source of nutrition to the non-indigenous colonial settlers, often supplementing meager rations. However, bushfoods were often considered to be inferior by colonists unfamiliar with the new land's food ingredients, generally preferring familiar foods from the homeland.

The only Australian native food developed and cropped on a large scale is the macadamia nut, with the first small-scale commercial plantation being planted in Australia in the 1880s. Subsequently, Hawaii was where the macadamia was commercially developed to its greatest extent from stock imported from Australia.

Modern use

In the 1970s non-indigenous Australians began to recognise the previously over-looked indigenous aspects of Australia, including native foods. Textbooks like Wildfoods In Australia by the botanist couple, Cribb & Cribb were popular and later the author Tim Low published Wild Food Plants of Australia. Jenifer Isaacs wrote the book Bushfood, and Vic Cherikoff wrote The Bushfood Handbook.

TV shows also made use of the bushfood theme. Malcolm Douglas was one of the first presenters to show how to 'live off the land' in the Australian Outback. Major Les Hiddins, a retired Australian Army soldier popularized the idea of bush tucker as an interesting food resource. He presented a hit TV series called Bush Tucker Man on the ABC TV network in the late 1980s. In the series, Hiddins demonstrated his research for Norforce in identifying foods which might sustain or augment army forces in the northern Australian Outback. In 1983, the University of Sydney's Human Nutrition Unit, headed by Jennie Brand-Miller, also undertook a nutritional analysis programme analyzing bushfood for Aboriginal health.

In the late 1970's regionally based horticulturists started to assess local native food-plants for commercial use. In the mid-1980s several Sydney restaurants began using native Australian ingredients in recipes more familiar to modern tastes. This provided the first opportunity for bushfoods to be tried by non-indigenous Australians on a serious gourmet level, and led to the realisation that many strongly flavoured bushfoods have spice-like qualities. This led to the establishment of a specialist bushfood supply chain. Some of these bushfood ingredients now feature in modern Australian cuisine, and Australian spices are being increasingly recognised internationally (see bushfood industry history).

Value-added bushfood products were also developed for the domestic and export markets. The raw ingredients were initially sourced from the wild and more recently cultivated using largely organic methods with an emphasis on maintaining sustainable quantities from both sources. Many Aboriginal communities continue to be involved in the supply chain and in investigating other socially and culturally appropriate opportunities.

The term "bushfood" is one of several terms describing native Australian food, evolving from the older-style "bushtucker" which was used in the 1970s and 1980s. The word "bushfood" was chosen to reflect the sustainable nature of the industry's products, and to help exporters with product branding. The term "authentic Australian food" is another marketing term recently coined to create further separation from the more rustic bush connotations, although "bushfood" is the most established and widespread term that describes native Australian food.

Native Australian food-plants listed by culinary province and plant part

Australian bushfood plants can be divided into several distinct and large regional culinary provinces. Please note, some species listed grow across several climatic boundaries.

Top-end

Monsoonal zone of the Northern Territory, Cape York and Western Australia.

Fruits

Buchanania arborescens Little Gooseberry Tree
Citrus gracilis Kakadu Lime
Eugenia carissoides Cedar Bay Cherry
Ficus racemosa Cluster Fig
Manilkara kaukii Wongi
Melastoma affine Blue Tongue
Mimusops elengi Tanjong
Morinda citrifolia Noni
Physalis minima Native Gooseberry
Terminalia ferdinandiana Kakadu Plum
Syzygium suborbiculare Lady Apple

Vegetables

Cycas media Cycad palm seeds (Require detoxification: see Bush bread )
Dioscorea alata Chinese or winged yam
Dioscorea transversa		 Pencil Yam, Long Yam
Dioscorea bulbifera Round Yam
Eleocharis sp. Mat-Rush, a traditional staple for Yolngu
Ipomoea aquatica Native Kang Kong
Lotus nelumbo Lotus
Nelumbo nucifera water lily
Nymphaea macrosperma water lily

Nuts

Semecarpus australiensis Australian Cashew Nut
Terminalia catappa Sea Almond

Spices

Eucalyptus staigeriana Lemon Ironbark
Melaleuca leucadendron Weeping Paperbark
Ocimum tenuiflorum Native Basil

Central Australia

Arid and semi-arid zones of the low rainfall interior.

Fruits

Capparis spp. Native Caper, Caperbush
Capparis mitchelii Wild orange
Capparis spinosa
ssp. nummularia		 Wild passionfruit
Carissa lanceolata Bush plum, Conkerberry
Citrus glauca Desert Lime
Enchylaena tormentosa Ruby Saltbush
Ficus platypoda Desert Fig
Marsdenia australis Doubah, Bush Banana
Owenia acidula Emu Apple
Santalum acuminatum Quandong
Santalum lanceolatum Sandalwood
Solanum centrale Akudjura, Australian Desert Raisin, Bush tomato
Solanum cleistogarnum Bush tomato
Solanum ellipticum Bush tomato

Vegetables

Calandrinia balonensis Parakeelya
Ipomoea costata Bush potato
Vigna lanceolata Pencil Yam
Lepidium spp. Peppercresses
Portulaca intraterranea Large Pigweed

Spices

Eucalyptus polybractea Blue-leaved Mallee

Seeds

Acacia aneura Mulga
Acacia colei
Acacia coriacea Dogwood
Acacia holosericea Strap Wattle
Acacia kempeana Witchetty Bush
Acacia murrayana
Acacia pycantha
Acacia retinodes
Acacia tetragonophylla Dead finish seed
Acacia victoriae Gundabluey, Prickly wattle
Brachychiton populneus Kurrajong
Panicum decompositum native millet
Portulaca oleracea Pigweed
Triodia spp. commonly known as spinifex

Insects in gall

Bush coconut

Mulga apple

Eastern Australia

Subtropical rainforests of New South Wales to the wet tropics of Northern Queensland.

Fruit

Acronychia acidula Lemon Aspen
Acronychia oblongifolia White Aspen
Antidesma bunius Herbet River Cherry
Archirhodomyrtus beckleri Rose Myrtle
Austromyrtus dulcis Midyim
Carpobrotus glaucescens Pigface
Citrus australasica Finger Lime
Citrus australis Dooja
Davidsonia jerseyana New South Wales Davidson's Plum
Davidsonia johnsonii Smooth Davidsonia
Davidsonia pruriens North Queensland Davidson's Plum
Diploglottis campbellii Small-leaf Tamarind
Eupomatia laurina Bolwarra
Ficus coronata Sandpaper Fig
Melodorum leichhardtii Zig Zag Vine
Pleiogynium timorense Burdekin Plum
Podocarpus elatus Illawarra Plum
Planchonella australis Black Apple
Rubus hillii Broad-leaf Bramble
Rubus probus Atherton Raspberry
Rubus rosifolius Rose-leaf Bramble
Sambucus australasica Yellow Elderberry
Syzygium fibrosum Fibrous Satinash
Syzygium luehmannii Riberry
Ximenia americana Yellow Plum

Vegetable

Geitonoplesium cymosum Scrambling Lily
Tetragonia tetragonoides Warrigal Greens
Trachymene incisa Wild Parsnip

Spices

Alpinia coerulea Native Ginger
Backhousia citriodora Lemon Myrtle
Backhousia myrtifolia Cinnamon Myrtle
Prostanthera incisa Cut-leaf Mintbush
Syzygium anisatum aniseed myrtle
Tasmannia stipitata Dorrigo pepper (leaf and pepperberry)

Nut

Araucaria bidwillii Bunya Nut
Athertonia diversifolius Atherton Almond
Macadamia integrifolia Macadamia Nut
Macadamia tetraphylla Bush Nut
Sterculia quadrifida Peanut Tree



Temperate

Warm and cool temperate zones of southern Australia, including Tasmania, South Australia, Victoria and the highlands of New South Wales.


Fruit

Acrotriche depressa Native Currant
Billarderia cymosa Sweet Apple-berry
Billarderia longiflora Purple Apple-berry
Billarderia scandens Common Apple-berry
Carpobrotus rossii Karkalla
Eustrephus latifolius Wombat berry
Exocarpus cupressiformis Native Cherry
Gaultheria hispida Snow Berry
Kunzea pomifera Muntries
Rubus parvifolius Pink-flowered Native Raspberry
Sambucus gaudichaudiana White Elderberry

Seed

Acacia longifolia Golden Rods
Acacia sophorae Coast Wattle

Spice

Eucalyptus dives Peppermint Gum
Eucalyptus olida Strawberry Gum
Eucalyptus globulus Tasmanian Blue Gum
Mentha australis River Mint
Prostanthera rotundifolia Native Thyme
Tasmannia lanceolata Mountain pepper
Tasmannia stipitata Dorrigo Pepper
Tasmannia xerophila Alpine Pepper

Vegetable

Apium insulare Flinders Island Celery
Atriplex cinerea Grey Saltbush
Burchardia umbellata Milkmaids
Microseris scapigera Murnong


See also

External links


References

  • Bruneteau, Jean-Paul, Tukka, Real Australian Food, ISBN 0-207-18966-8.
  • Cherikoff, Vic, The Bushfood Handbook, ISBN 0-7316-6904-5.
  • Issacs, Jennifer, Bushfood, Weldons, Sydney.
  • Kersh, Jennice and Raymond, Edna's Table, ISBN 0-7336-0539-7.
  • Low, Tim, Wild Food Plants of Australia, ISBN-13: 978-0207143830
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