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| | {{ethnic group| | | {{ethnic group| |
| − | |group=Xhosas | + | |group=Amhara |
| − | |image=[[Image:Nelson_Mandela.jpg]] | + | |image= |
| − | [[Nelson Mandela]] is a famous Xhosa-speaker.
| + | |poptime=20 Million |
| − | |poptime=2001: '''7.9 million''' est. <sup>[[#References|1]]</sup> | + | |popplace=[[Ethiopia]] |
| − | |popplace=[[Eastern Cape Province|Eastern Cape]]: '''5.4 million''', | + | |rels=[[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity]] |
| − | [[Western Cape Province|Western Cape]]: '''1.1 million''',
| + | |langs=[[Amharic language|Amharic]] |
| − | [[Gauteng Province|Gauteng]]: '''0.7 million''', | + | |related= |
| − | [[Free State Province|Free State]]: '''0.25 million''',
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| − | [[Kwazulu-Natal Province|Kwazulu-Natal]]: '''0.22 million'''
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| − | (2001 est. <sup>[[#References|1]]</sup>)
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| − | |langs=[[Xhosa language|Xhosa]], many also speak [[English language|English]] or [[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]]. | |
| − | |rels=[[Animist]], [[Christian]]
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| − | |related=[[Bantu]], [[Nguni]], [[Basotho]], [[Zulu]], [[Khoisan]] | |
| | }} | | }} |
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| − | The '''Xhosa''' people are a group of peoples of [[Bantu]] origins living in south-east [[South Africa]].
| + | '''Amhara''' (አማራ) is an ethnicity of people in the central highlands of [[Ethiopia]], numbering about 19 million, making up around 26% of the country's population (estimates differ). They speak [[Amharic language|Amharic]], the official language of Ethiopia, and dominate the country's political and economic life. |
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| − | ==Introduction== | + | ==Agriculture== |
| − | The Xhosa people, who were descendants of the Bantu people, live on the Eastern Cape of South Africa. During the 1600s to the 1700s, they settled in the lush mountain slopes of the many streamed Amatola and Zinterberg Mountains. Many unique features set them apart from other African tribes. For instance, they are located in a region suitable for farming and cattle herding providing them with a diet of many varieties of food. Also, their vast numbers of people are divided into chiefdoms and all of their different dialects are understood amongst each other. Lastly, everyone have the same or similar traditions.
| + | About 90% of the Amhara are rural and make their living through farming, mostly in the Ethiopian highlands. Prior to the 1974 revolution, absentee landlords maintained strict control over their sharecropping tenants, often allowing them to accumulate crippling debts. After 1974, the landlords were replaced by local government officials, who play a similaf d fjkdl;jflkr role. |
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| − | ==Location==
| + | Barley, corn, millet, wheat, sorghum and [[teff]], along with beans, peppers, chick-peas and other vegetables are the most important crops; in the highlands one crop per year is normal, while in the lowlands two are possible. Cattle, sheep, and goats are also raised. |
| − | The Xhosa population mainly lives in the Eastern Cape Province of Africa, although they are found throughout South Africa. The population is centralized in the cities of Ciskei and Transkei, which were also the homelands of the first Xhosa peoples.
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| − | ==History of the Xhosa==
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| − | The Xhosa are part of the southern [[Nguni]] migration which slowly moved south from the region around the [[African_Great_Lakes|Great Lakes]]; based on linguistic and archeological evidence, the ancestors of the Xhosa are likely to have arrived in South Africa around 1500 years ago. [http://www.museums.org.za/sh/arch/earlyaf.htm]
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| − | The name Xhosa refers to a specific tribal leader, called uXhosa, from whom the Xhosa claim descent. They refer to themselves as the '''amaXhosa''' and their language as [[Xhosa language|isiXhosa]], a [[Bantu]] language. Xhosa society was historically viewed as an 'open' society, because of its readiness to learn from, trade and interact with other societies. This included the incorporation or absorption of entire [[Khoi]] and [[Griqua]] cultural groups into Xhosa communities, often through marriage, and the wholesale adoption of [[Khoisan]] loanwords into Xhosa vocabulary.
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| − | The Xhosa people split in the eighteenth century as the result of a succession dispute between chiefs. The two branches of the group are known as the Gcaleka and the Rharhabe or Ngqika. The name Xhosa is also often used to refer to anyone from a number of different Xhosa-speaking ethnic groups that includes the [[Pondo]] and Thembu, neighbours of the Xhosa people, and the Mfengu people, who are descendants of scattered clans who were displaced during the [[mfecane]] of the early nineteenth century.
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| − | Although nowadays around 8 million Xhosa people are distributed across the country, the population is concentrated in the [[Eastern Cape Province]] of South Africa. The pre-1994 South African system of [[bantustan]]s attempted to confine Xhosa people to the nominally self-governing 'homelands' of [[Transkei]] or [[Ciskei]], now both a part of Eastern Cape Province
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| − | The Xhosa and white settlers first encountered one another around Somerset West in the early 1700s. In the late 1700s [[Afrikaner]] [[trekboer]]s migrating outwards from Cape Town came into conflict with Xhosa pastoralists around the Great Fish River region of the [[Eastern Cape]]. Following more than 20 years of intermittent conflict, in [[1811]] to [[1812]] the Xhosas were forced east by [[British Empire|British]] colonial forces in what was known as the Third Frontier War.
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| − | In the years following, many Xhosa-speaking clans were pushed west by expansion of the [[Zulu]]s, as the northern [[Nguni]] put pressure on the southern Nguni as part of the historical process known as the [[mfecane]], or "scattering". Xhosa unity and ability to resist colonial expansion was further weakened by the [[famine]]s and political divisions that followed the cattle-killing movement of [[1856]] (see [[Nongqawuse]]). Historians now view this movement as a [[millenialism|millenialist]] response both directly to a lung disease spreading among Xhosa cattle at the time, and less directly to the stress to Xhosa society caused by the continuing loss of their territory and autonomy. At least one historian has also suggested that it can be seen as a rebellion against the upper classes of Xhosa society, which used cattle as a means of consolidating wealth and political power, and which had lost respect as they failed to hold back white expansion.
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| − | With or without Nongqawuse, white expansion in particular would likely have eventually caused much the same effect as the cattle-killing; the cattle-killing simply likely hastened the speed at which Xhosa people left pastoralism and joined the wage economy.
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| − | Some historians argue that this early absorption into the wage economy is the ultimate origin of the long history of trade union membership and political leadership among Xhosa people. That history manifests itself today in high degrees of Xhosa representation in the leadership of the [[African National Congress]], South Africa's ruling political party.
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| − | ==Local Enviroment==
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| − | Local EnvironmentThe Xhosa settled on mountain slopes of the Amatola and the. Zinterberg Mountains. Many streams drain into great rivers of this Xhosa territory including the Kei and Fish River. Rich soils and plentiful rainfall make the river basins good for farming and grazing making cattle important and the basis of wealth. In the past, the Xhosa diet included Sorghum, which was a plant much like corn. As of now, the modern Xhosa diet includes corn, milk, pumpkins, beans, vegetables, and umphokoqo, which is cooked cornmeal that has the consistency of porridge. Tobacco is an important crop of this area.
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| − | ==Language==
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| − | In [[South Africa]], the Xhosa-speaking people form the second largest language group. The language contains click sounds borrowed from Khoisan languages. Three basic clicks are used when speaking Xhosa. They are C (front-click) as in icici (an earring).'' Form a slight smile, put tongue behind teeth and pull down.'' Q (top click) as in iqaa (skunk). ''Form an O and put tongue on roof (middle) then pull down.'' X (side-click) as in uxam (water lizard). ''Pull tongue inward and downward from top roof of mouth.'' These clicks can also be used in combination with consonant sounds as in ingca. Use c and ng.
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| | ==Religion== | | ==Religion== |
| − | It is believed amaQaba ancestors guarded living relatives. Just like medicine men in Native American religion, Xhosas had [[Diviners]], who served as herbalists, prophets, and healers for the community. This job is mostly taken by women, who spend five years as an apprentice to become one. An alternative religion was the Christian religion. Many Xhosians worship ancestors called Qamata whom they prayed through. AmaQaba believed their ancestors guarded their living relatives and thus worshipped them through sacrifice of cattle and goats. The people put red ocher on themselves and were called the red people by the whites. A Christian alternative for the name is [[Thixo]]. However, most people were Christian converts started by [[Dr. Johannes Van Der Kemp]] who was a Dutch Missionary of the London Missionary society. Missionaries protected Xhosa from white abuses. From the 1890s and on, New African churches were started with a mix of African and Christian.
| + | Their predominant religion for centuries has been [[Christianity]], with the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Ethiopian Orthodox Church]] playing a central role in the culture of the country and of the Amharic ethnic group. The church maintains close links with the [[Egyptian Coptic Church]]. [[Easter]] and [[Epiphany]] are the most important celebrations, marked with services, feasting and dancing. There are also many "fast" days throughout the year, when only vegetables or fish may be eaten. |
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| − | ==Marriage==
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| − | Xhosa marriage bares similarities to that of Zulus particularly in that the marriage is sealed by the transfer of cattle (ikazi) from the family of the groom to that of bride as compensation for the bride’s family. However, this usually amounts to more than five cattle unless the bride’s family is wealthy.
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| − | *'''Polygamy'''
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| − | The practice of having more than one wife in the past was considered ideal but not necessarily normal. However, missionaries suggested Xhosa of the Christian faith to have only one wife. Today, having more than one wife is becoming increasingly rare.
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| − | ==Tribal organization==
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| − | The actual people are named after a heroic ancestor from the past called Xhosa. These people are then divided into chiefdoms. Chiefdoms consist of a number of clans, which are people related to the same male ancestor. Only the older chiefdoms of Gcaleka and Rharhabe are able to claim direct relations with him. To set them apart, they’re called Xhosa proper. Other major chiefdoms include Thembu, Bomvana, Mpondo, and Mpondomise. Less closely related include Mfengu, Bhaca, Bhele, Zizi, Hlubi, and Qwati. Clan members don’t marry because they’re related. In the rural family, there is the umninimzi, or the head of the house. He is the senior male of the family and lives with his wife or wives, his unmarried children, and sometimes one or two dependent relatives.
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| − | ==Oral Literature==
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| − | The Key figure in Oral Literature is the imbongi or plural: iimbongi, who was also called the praise singer or poet. Being almost always men, iimbongi traditionally lived close to the chief’s great place and accompanied the chief on important occasions. Dressed in an animal skin, hat and cloak, he carried a spear and a club called a knobkerrie. His public performances, which were sometimes prophetic, praised the chief’s action and best features. He also criticized the chief if aspects of his reign or government were unpopular. In general, he expressed own poetic interpretation and also reflected what the people around him thought and was an important member of ceremonies.
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| − | ==Famous Xhosa People==
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| − | [[Nelson Mandela]] is a Xhosa-speaking member of the Thembu people.
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| − | Other famous Xhosa speakers include:
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| − | *[[Stephen Biko]]
| + | Marriages are often arranged, with men marrying in their late teens or early twenties. Traditionally, girls were married as young as 14, but in the 20th century, the minimum age was raised to 18, and this was enforced by the Imperial government. Civil marriages are common, although some marry in churches. After a church wedding, divorce is not considered possible. Each family hosts a separate wedding feast after the wedding. |
| − | *[[Bulelani Ngcuka]]
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| − | *[[Thabo Mbeki]]
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| − | *[[Makhaya Ntini]]
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| − | *[[Desmond Tutu]]
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| − | *[[Brenda Fassie]]
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| − | *[[Winnie Madikizela-Mandela]]
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| − | *[[Chris Hani]]
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| − | *[[Oliver Tambo]]
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| − | *[[Walter Sisulu]]
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| − | *[[Miriam Makeba]]
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| − | *[[Robert Sobukwe]]
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| − | *[[John Kani]]
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| − | *[[Winston Ntshona]]
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| − | *[[Enoch Sontonga]]
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| − | *[[Govan Mbeki]]
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| − | *[[Archibald Campbell Jordan]]
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| − | *[[Victoria Mxenge]]
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| − | *[[S.E.K. Mqhayi]]
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| − | ==Key Xhosa Contributers==
| + | Upon childbirth, a priest will visit the family to bless the infant, and circumcise him if he is a boy {{Dubious}}. The mother and child remain in the house, for forty days after birth of a boy, eighty for a girl, before going to the church for [[baptism]]. |
| − | *[[Desmond Tutu]] – 1984 Nobel Peace Prize Recipient, world wide famous opponent of apartheid, and Archbishop of the Anglican Church in 1996.
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| − | *[[Nelson Mandela]] – Current South African president and also the most famous Xhosa speaker.
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| − | *[[Mqhayi]] – Author to 1909 Xhosa novel S.E.K.
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| − | *[[Amampondo]] – Popular Xhosa Music Artist
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| − | *[[Chief Faku]] – Ruler of the Mpondo chiefdom in the early 1800s.
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| − | ==See also== | + | ==Art== |
| − | *Reverend [[Henry Hare Dugmore]], the first translator of the [[Christian]] [[bible]] and [[psalms]] into Xhosa
| + | Amharic art is typified by religious paintings. One of the most notable features of these is the large eyes of the subjects, who are usually biblical figures. |
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| − | ==References== | + | ==History== |
| − | * [http://www.southafrica.info/ess_info/sa_glance/demographics/census-main.htm Results of the 2001 South African census]
| + | Historians generally consider the Amhara to have been Ethiopia's ruling elite for centuries, represented by the line of Emperors ending in [[Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia|Haile Selassie]]. Many commentators, including Marcos Lemma, dispute the accuracy of such a statement, arguing that other ethnic groups have always been active in the country's politics. One possible source of confusion for this stems from the mislabeling of Amharic speakers as "Amhara," and the fact that many people from other ethnic groups have Amharic names. Another is the fact that most Ethiopians can trace their ancestry to multiple ethnic groups. In fact, the last Emperor, Haile Selassie I, often counted himself a member of the [[Gurage]] tribe on account of his ancestry, and his Empress, Etege Menen, was in large part of [[Oromo]] descent. |
| − | ::Note that the figure mentioned on this page is based upon the number of people speaking [[Xhosa language|Xhosa]] as their home language, which may be greater or less than the total number of people claiming Xhosa descent.
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| − | * Reader, J., 1997. ''[[Africa]]: A Biography of the Continent'', Vintage Books, [[New York]], NY, United States of America.
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| − | * Kaschula, Russell ''[[The Heritage Library of African People]]: Xhosa,'' New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc., 1997.
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| | ==External links== | | ==External links== |
| − | {{interwiki|code=xh}} | + | * Lemma, Marcos (MD, PhD). {{Web reference | title=Who ruled Ethiopia? The myth of 'Amara domination' | work=Ethiomedia.com | URL=http://www.ethiomedia.com/newpress/the_amara_myth.html | date=February 28 | year=2005}} |
| − | * [http://www.sacred-texts.com/afr/xft/ Xhosa Folklore] - a collection of Xhosa folklore collected in 1886.
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| − | * [http://www.google.com/intl/xh/ Xhosa Google] - Google interface in Xhosa
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| − | [[Category:Ethnic groups in South Africa]]
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| − | {{Ethnic Groups South Africa}}
| + | [[Category:Ethnic groups in Ethiopia]] |
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| − | [[de:Xhosa]] | + | [[de:Amharen]] |
| − | [[fi:Xhosat]] | + | [[es:Amhara]] |
| − | [[it:Xhosa]]
| + | [[nl:Amharen]] |
| − | [[nl:Xhosa]] | + | [[fi:Amharat]] |
| − | [[pt:Xhosa]] | |
Amhara (አማራ) is an ethnicity of people in the central highlands of Ethiopia, numbering about 19 million, making up around 26% of the country's population (estimates differ). They speak Amharic, the official language of Ethiopia, and dominate the country's political and economic life.
Agriculture
About 90% of the Amhara are rural and make their living through farming, mostly in the Ethiopian highlands. Prior to the 1974 revolution, absentee landlords maintained strict control over their sharecropping tenants, often allowing them to accumulate crippling debts. After 1974, the landlords were replaced by local government officials, who play a similaf d fjkdl;jflkr role.
Barley, corn, millet, wheat, sorghum and teff, along with beans, peppers, chick-peas and other vegetables are the most important crops; in the highlands one crop per year is normal, while in the lowlands two are possible. Cattle, sheep, and goats are also raised.
Religion
Their predominant religion for centuries has been Christianity, with the Ethiopian Orthodox Church playing a central role in the culture of the country and of the Amharic ethnic group. The church maintains close links with the Egyptian Coptic Church. Easter and Epiphany are the most important celebrations, marked with services, feasting and dancing. There are also many "fast" days throughout the year, when only vegetables or fish may be eaten.
Marriages are often arranged, with men marrying in their late teens or early twenties. Traditionally, girls were married as young as 14, but in the 20th century, the minimum age was raised to 18, and this was enforced by the Imperial government. Civil marriages are common, although some marry in churches. After a church wedding, divorce is not considered possible. Each family hosts a separate wedding feast after the wedding.
Upon childbirth, a priest will visit the family to bless the infant, and circumcise him if he is a boy Template:Dubious. The mother and child remain in the house, for forty days after birth of a boy, eighty for a girl, before going to the church for baptism.
Art
Amharic art is typified by religious paintings. One of the most notable features of these is the large eyes of the subjects, who are usually biblical figures.
History
Historians generally consider the Amhara to have been Ethiopia's ruling elite for centuries, represented by the line of Emperors ending in Haile Selassie. Many commentators, including Marcos Lemma, dispute the accuracy of such a statement, arguing that other ethnic groups have always been active in the country's politics. One possible source of confusion for this stems from the mislabeling of Amharic speakers as "Amhara," and the fact that many people from other ethnic groups have Amharic names. Another is the fact that most Ethiopians can trace their ancestry to multiple ethnic groups. In fact, the last Emperor, Haile Selassie I, often counted himself a member of the Gurage tribe on account of his ancestry, and his Empress, Etege Menen, was in large part of Oromo descent.
External links
de:Amharen
es:Amhara
nl:Amharen
fi:Amharat
