Difference between revisions of "AY Honors/African Lore/Answer Key"

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The '''cuisine of South Africa''' varies widely, representing the [[food]] of indigenous people and of all those who have immigrated since the seventeenth century.
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{{ethnic group|
 +
|group=Xhosa
 +
|image=[[Image:Nelson_Mandela.jpg]]
 +
[[Nelson Mandela]] is a famous Xhosa-speaker.
 +
|poptime=2001: '''7.9 million''' est. <sup>[[#References|1]]</sup>
 +
|popplace=[[Eastern Cape Province|Eastern Cape]]: '''5.4 million''',
 +
[[Western Cape Province|Western Cape]]: '''1.1 million''',
 +
[[Gauteng Province|Gauteng]]: '''0.7 million''',
 +
[[Free State Province|Free State]]: '''0.25 million''',
 +
[[Kwazulu-Natal Province|Kwazulu-Natal]]: '''0.22 million'''
 +
(2001 est. <sup>[[#References|1]]</sup>)
 +
|langs=[[Xhosa language|Xhosa]], many also speak [[English language|English]] or [[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]].
 +
|rels=[[Animist]], [[Christian]]
 +
|related=[[Bantu]], [[Nguni]], [[Basotho]], [[Zulu]], [[Khoisan]]
 +
}}
  
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Modern South African cookery is influenced by two primary cultural strands:
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The '''Xhosa''' people are a group of peoples of [[Bantu]] origins living in south-east [[South Africa]].
  
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*Cookery practised by indigenous people of [[South Africa]] such as the [[Khoisan]] and [[Xhosa]]- and [[Sotho]]-speaking people
 
−
*Settler cookery introduced during the colonial period by people of [[Afrikaner]] and [[British]] descent and their [[slaves]] and servants - this includes the cuisine of the [[Cape Malay]] people, which has many characteristics of [[Malaysia]] and [[Java (island)|Java]], and recipes from neighbouring colonial cultures such as [[Portugal|Portuguese]] [[Mozambique]].
 
  
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==Indigenous cookery==
 
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In the precolonial period indigenous cuisine was characterised by the use of a very wide range of fruits, nuts, bulbs, leaves and other products gathered from wild plants and by the hunting of wild game. The domestication of cattle in the region about two thousand years ago by [[Khoisan]] groups enabled the use of [[milk]] products and the availability of fresh meat on demand. However, during the colonial period the seizure of communal land in South Africa helped to restrict and discourage traditional [[agriculture]] and wild harvesting, and reduced the extent of land available to [[black people|black]] people.
 
  
−
===Decline of indigenous cookery===
+
==History of the Xhosa==
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[[Urbanisation]] from the nineteenth century onward, coupled with close control over agricultural production, led [[black people|black]] South Africans to rely more and more on comparatively expensive, industrially-processed foodstuffs like wheat flour, white rice, mealie (maize) meal and sugar. Often these foods were imported or processed by [[white people|white]] wholesalers, mills and factories. The consequence was to drastically restrict the range of ingredients and cooking styles used by indigenous cooks.  
+
The Xhosa are part of the southern [[Nguni]] migration which slowly moved south from the region around the [[African_Great_Lakes|Great Lakes]]; based on linguistic and archeological evidence, the ancestors of the Xhosa are likely to have arrived in South Africa around 1500 years ago. [http://www.museums.org.za/sh/arch/earlyaf.htm]
  
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==Settler cookery==
+
The name Xhosa refers to a specific tribal leader, called uXhosa, from whom the Xhosa clan descend. They refer to themselves as the '''amaXhosa''' and  their language as [[Xhosa language|isiXhosa]], a [[Bantu]] language.  Xhosa society was historically viewed as an 'open' society, because of its readiness to learn from, trade and interact with other societies. This included the incorporation or absorption of entire [[Khoi]] and [[Griqua]] cultural groups into Xhosa communities, often through marriage, and the wholesale adoption of [[Khoisan]] [[loanwords]] into Xhosa vocabulary.  
−
South Africa was settled from the seventeenth century onwards by colonists from the [[Netherlands]], [[Germany]] and [[France]], and later by arrivals from the [[British Isles]]. These colonists brought European cookery styles with them.  
 
  
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===Cape Dutch===
+
The Xhosa people split in the eighteenth century as the result of a succession dispute between chiefs. The two branches of the group are known as the Gcaleka and the Rharhabe or Ngqika. The name Xhosa is also often used to refer to anyone from a number of different Xhosa-speaking ethnic groups that includes the [[Pondo]] and Thembu, neighbours of the Xhosa people, and the Mfengu people, who are descendants of scattered clans who were displaced during the [[mfecane]] (a sort of [[diaspora]]) of the early nineteenth century.  
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Traditional cookery of South Africa is often referred to as "Cape Dutch"; this cuisine is characterised by the use of spices such as [[nutmeg]], [[allspice]] and [[hot pepper]]s. The Cape Dutch cookery style owes at least as much to the cookery of the [[slaves]] brought by the [[Dutch East India Company]] to the Cape from [[Bengal]], [[Java (island)|Java]] and [[Malaysia]] as it does to the European styles of cookery imported by settlers, and this is reflected in the use of eastern spices and the names given to many of these dishes.
 
  
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===Indian cookery===
+
Although nowadays around 8 million Xhosa people are distributed across the country, the population is concentrated in the [[Eastern Cape Province]] of South Africa.  The pre-1994 South African system of [[bantustan]]s attempted to confine Xhosa people to the nominally self-governing 'homelands' of [[Transkei]] or [[Ciskei]], now both a part of Eastern Cape Province
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[[Curry]] dishes are popular in South Africa among people of all ethnic origins; many dishes came to the country with the thousands of [[Asians in South Africa|Indian]] labourers brought to South Africa in the nineteenth century.
 
  
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==Restaurants and fast food outlets==
+
The Xhosa and white settlers first encountered one another around Somerset East in the early 1700s. In the late 1700s [[Afrikaner]] [[trekboer]]s migrating outwards from Cape Town came into conflict with Xhosa pastoralists around the Great Fish River region of the [[Eastern Cape]]. Following more than 20 years of intermittent conflict, in [[1811]] to [[1812]] the Xhosas were forced east by [[British Empire|British]] colonial forces in what was known as the Third Frontier War.  
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South Africa can be said to have a real "eating out" culture. While there are some restaurants that specialize in traditional South African dishes or modern interpretations thereof, restaurants featuring other cuisines such as [[Morocco|Moroccan]], [[China|Chinese]], [[West Africa|West African]], [[Congo|Congolese]] and [[Japan|Japanese]] can be found in all of the major cities and many of the larger towns. In addition, there are also a large number of home-grown chain restaurants, such as [[Spur (restaurant chain)|Spur]] and [[Mugg & Bean]].
 
  
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There is also a proliferation of [[fast food]] restaurants in South Africa. While there are some international players such as [[McDonalds]] and [[Kentucky Fried Chicken]] active in the country, they face stiff competition from local chains such as [[Nando's]] and [[Steers]].
+
In the years following, many Xhosa-speaking clans were pushed west by expansion of the [[Zulu]]s, as the northern [[Nguni]] put pressure on the southern Nguni as part of the historical process known as the [[mfecane]], or "scattering". Xhosa unity and ability to resist colonial expansion was further weakened by the [[famine]]s and political divisions that followed the cattle-killing movement of [[1856]] (see [[Nongqawuse]]). Historians now view this movement as a [[millenialism|millenialist]] response both directly to a lung disease spreading among Xhosa cattle at the time, and less directly to the stress to Xhosa society caused by the continuing loss of their territory and autonomy. At least one historian has also suggested that it can be seen as a rebellion against the upper classes of Xhosa society, which used cattle as a means of consolidating wealth and political power, and which had lost respect as they failed to hold back white expansion.
  
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Many of the restaurant chains originating from South-Africa have also expanded successfully outside the borders of the country.
+
With or without Nongqawuse, white expansion in particular would likely have eventually caused much the same effect as the cattle-killing; the cattle-killing simply likely hastened the speed at which Xhosa people left pastoralism and joined the wage economy.
  
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==Typical South African foods and dishes==
+
Some historians argue that this early absorption into the wage economy is the ultimate origin of the long history of trade union membership and political leadership among Xhosa people. That history manifests itself today in high degrees of Xhosa representation in the leadership of the [[African National Congress]], South Africa's ruling political party.
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*[[Biltong]], a salty dried meat (similar to [[jerky (food)|jerky]])
+
 
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*[[Bobotie]], a dish of [[Malaysia|Malay]] descent, is like [[meatloaf]] with [[raisin]]s and with baked [[egg (food)|egg]] on top, and is often served with yellow [[rice]], [[sambal]]s, [[coconut]], [[banana]] slices, and [[chutney]]
+
==Local Environment==
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*[[Boerewors]], a [[sausage]] that is traditionally ''[[braai]]ed'' ([[barbeque]]d)
+
The Xhosa settled on mountain slopes of the Amatola and the Zinterberg Mountains. Many streams drain into great rivers of this Xhosa territory including the Kei and Fish River. Rich soils and plentiful rainfall make the river basins good for farming and grazing making cattle important and the basis of wealth. Traditional foods include [[sorghum]], [[maize]], [[milk]], [[pumpkins]], [[beans]], [[vegetables]], and umphokoqo, or dry maize porridge. [[Tobacco]] is an important crop in this area.
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*[[Bunny chow]], [[curry]] stuffed into a hollowed-out loaf of bread
+
 
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*[[Chutney]], a sweet sauce made from fruit that is usually poured on meat, especially a local brand called ''[[Mrs Ball's Chutney]]''
+
==Language==
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*''[[Frikkadel]]le'' - [[meatballs]]
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:''Main article: [[Xhosa language]]''
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*''Gesmoorde vis'', salted [[cod]] with [[potato]]es and [[tomato]]es and sometimes served with [[apricot]] jam
+
 
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*''Hoenderpastei'', chicken pie, traditional [[Afrikaans]] fare
+
In [[South Africa]], the Xhosa-speaking people form the second largest language group. The language contains click sounds borrowed from [[Khoisan]] languages.  Three basic clicks are used when speaking Xhosa. They are C (front-click) as in icici (an earring).'' Form a slight smile, put tongue behind teeth and pull down.'' Q (top click) as in iqaa (skunk). ''Form an O and put tongue on roof (middle) then pull down.'' X (side-click) as in uxam (water lizard). ''Pull tongue inward and downward from top roof of mouth.'' These clicks can also be used in combination with consonant sounds as in ingca. Use c and ng.
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*''[[Isidudu]]'', pumpkin pap
+
 
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*[[Koeksuster]]s come in two forms and are a sweet delicacy. Afrikaans koeksusters are twisted [[pastry|pastries]], deep fried and heavily sweetened. Koeksusters found on the [[Cape Flats]] are sweet and spicy, shaped like large eggs, and deep-fried
+
==Religion==
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*[[Malva Pudding]], a sweet spongy [[Apricot]] [[pudding]] of [[Netherlands|Dutch]] origin.
+
Traditional Xhosa culture includes [[diviners]], who serve as herbalists, prophets, and healers for the community. This job is mostly taken by women, who spend five years as an apprentice. Many Xhosa people are [[Christian]], particularly within the African Initiated Churches such as the [[Zion Christian Church]].
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*''[[Mashonzha]]'', made from the [[mopane worm]]
+
 
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*''[[Melktert]]'' (milk tart), a milk-based dessert
+
==Oral tradition==
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*[[Mealie-bread]], a sweet bread baked with [[sweetcorn]]
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The key figure in the Xhosa oral tradition is the ''imbongi'' (plural: ''iimbongi'') or praise singer. ''Iimbongi'' traditionally live close to the chief’s great place and accompany the chief on important occasions - the ''imbongi'' Zolani Mkiva preceded [[Nelson Mandela]] at his Presidential inauguration in [[1994]]. Iimbongi's poetry praises the chief’s actions and best features, and may also criticise the chief if aspects of his reign or government are unpopular. 
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*[[Mielie-meal]], one of the staple foods, often used in baking but predominately cooked into [[pap (food)|pap]], or ''phutu'', a traditional [[Bantu]] [[porridge]] which is usually eaten with [[bean]]s, [[gravy]], or [[meat]]
+
 
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*[[Ostrich]] is an increasingly popular [[protein]] source as it has a low [[cholesterol]] content; it is either used in a stew or filleted and grilled
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==Famous Xhosa People==
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*''Pampoenkoekies'' (pumpkin flapjacks), ''patatrolle'' (sweet potato rolls) and a further variety of baked goods where flour has been supplemented with or replaced by [[pumpkin]] or [[sweet potato]]
+
[[Nelson Mandela]] is a Xhosa-speaking member of the Thembu people.
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*''Potbrood'' (pot bread), savoury bread baked over coals in cast-iron pots
+
 
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*''[[Potjiekos]]'', a traditional [[Afrikaans]] [[stew]] made with meat and vegetables and cooked over coals in [[cast-iron]] pots
+
Other famous Xhosa speakers include:
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*[[Rusk]]s, a rectangular, hard, dry [[biscuit]] eaten after being dunked in [[tea]] or [[coffee]]; they are either home-baked or shop-bought (with the most popular brand being ''[[Ouma Rusks]]'')
+
 
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*[[Samosa]] or ''samoosa'', a savoury stuffed [[Indians in South Africa|Indian]] [[pastry]] that is fried
+
*[[Stephen Biko]]
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*[[Sosatie]]s, grilled marinated meat on a [[skewer]]
+
*[[Bulelani Ngcuka]]
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*[[Tomato bredie]], a [[lamb]] and [[tomato]] [[stew]]
+
*[[Thabo Mbeki]]
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*[[Trotter]]s and [[Bean]]s, from the [[Eastern Cape|Cape]], made from boiled pig's or sheep's trotters and [[onion]]s and beans
+
*[[Makhaya Ntini]]
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*''[[Umngqusho]]'', a dish made from [[semolina]] and black-eyed [[pea]]s
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*[[Desmond Tutu]]
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*''[[Vetkoek]]'' (fat cake), deep-fried [[dough]] balls, typically stuffed with meat or served with jam
+
*[[Brenda Fassie]]
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*''[[Waterblommetjiebredie|Waterblommetjie bredie]]'' (water flower stew), meat [[stew]]ed with the flower of the [[Cape Pondweed]]
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*[[Winnie Madikizela-Mandela]]
 +
*[[Chris Hani]]
 +
*[[Oliver Tambo]]
 +
*[[Walter Sisulu]]
 +
*[[Miriam Makeba]]
 +
*[[Robert Sobukwe]]
 +
*[[John Kani]]
 +
*[[Winston Ntshona]]
 +
*[[Enoch Sontonga]]
 +
*[[Govan Mbeki]]
 +
*[[Archibald Campbell Jordan]]
 +
*[[Victoria Mxenge]]
 +
*[[S.E.K. Mqhayi]]
 +
*[[Amampondo]]
 +
*[[Fats Bookulane]]
 +
*[[Ken Gampu]]
 +
*[[Bongani Ndodana]]
 +
*[[General Bantu Holomisa]]
 +
*[[Percy Qoboza]]
 +
 
 +
==See also==
 +
*Reverend [[Henry Hare Dugmore]], the first translator of the [[Christian]] [[bible]] and [[psalms]] into Xhosa
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
−
*Coetzee, Renata, 1977. ''The South African Culinary Tradition'', C. Struik Publishers, Cape Town, South Africa.  
+
* [http://www.southafrica.info/ess_info/sa_glance/demographics/census-main.htm Results of the 2001 South African census]
−
*Leipoldt, C. Louis, 1976. ''Leipoldt’s Cape Cookery'', Fleesch and Partners, Cape Town, South Africa.
+
::Note that the figure mentioned on this page is based upon the number of people speaking [[Xhosa language|Xhosa]] as their home language, which may be greater or less than the total number of people claiming Xhosa descent.
−
*Van Wyk, B. and Gericke, N., 2000. ''People's plants: A guide to useful plants of Southern Africa'', Briza, [[Pretoria]], [[South Africa]].
+
* Reader, J., 1997. ''[[Africa]]: A Biography of the Continent'', Vintage Books, [[New York]], NY, United States of America.
−
*Wylie, D., 2001. ''Starving on a Full Stomach: Hunger and the Triumph of Cultural Racism in Modern South Africa'', University of Virginia Press, Charlottesville, VA., United States of America.
+
* Kaschula, Russell ''[[The Heritage Library of African People]]:  Xhosa,'' New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc., 1997.
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*[http://www.routledge-ny.com/ref/africanhist/farming.html Routledge Encyclopaedia of Africa - Farming]
 
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
−
*[http://www.southafrica.info/plan_trip/holiday/food_wine/food.htm South African cuisine - International Marketing Council of South Africa web site]
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{{interwiki|code=xh}}
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{{Cuisine of Africa}}
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*[http://www.statssa.gov.za/census2001/digiAtlas/index.html 2001 Digital Census Atlas]
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[[Category:South African cuisine|*]]
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* [http://www.sacred-texts.com/afr/xft/ Xhosa Folklore] - a collection of Xhosa folklore collected in 1886.
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[[Category:African cuisine|South Africa]]
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* [http://www.google.com/intl/xh/ Xhosa Google] - Google interface in Xhosa
 +
* [http://www.razsar.com/History%20and%20culture/E%20Xhosa.htm RaZSAR], a website dedicated to supporting ecotourism in Kimberley and the Northern Cape of South Africa.
 +
 
 +
[[Category:Xhosa|*]]
 +
[[Category:Ethnic groups in South Africa]]  
 +
 
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{{Ethnic Groups South Africa}}
  
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[[uk:Південноафриканська кухня]]
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[[da:Xhosa-folket]]
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[[de:Xhosa (Volk)]]
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[[es:Xhosa]]
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[[gl:Xhosa]]
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[[it:Xhosa]]
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[[nl:Xhosa (volk)]]
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[[pt:Xhosa]]
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[[sh:Xhosa]]
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[[fi:Xhosat]]
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[[sv:Xhosa]]

Revision as of 13:43, 13 April 2006

{{{name}}}

[[Image:Nelson Mandela.jpg Nelson Mandela is a famous Xhosa-speaker.|thumb|300px|{{{image caption}}}]]







The Xhosa people are a group of peoples of Bantu origins living in south-east South Africa.


History of the Xhosa

The Xhosa are part of the southern Nguni migration which slowly moved south from the region around the Great Lakes; based on linguistic and archeological evidence, the ancestors of the Xhosa are likely to have arrived in South Africa around 1500 years ago. [1]

The name Xhosa refers to a specific tribal leader, called uXhosa, from whom the Xhosa clan descend. They refer to themselves as the amaXhosa and their language as isiXhosa, a Bantu language. Xhosa society was historically viewed as an 'open' society, because of its readiness to learn from, trade and interact with other societies. This included the incorporation or absorption of entire Khoi and Griqua cultural groups into Xhosa communities, often through marriage, and the wholesale adoption of Khoisan loanwords into Xhosa vocabulary.

The Xhosa people split in the eighteenth century as the result of a succession dispute between chiefs. The two branches of the group are known as the Gcaleka and the Rharhabe or Ngqika. The name Xhosa is also often used to refer to anyone from a number of different Xhosa-speaking ethnic groups that includes the Pondo and Thembu, neighbours of the Xhosa people, and the Mfengu people, who are descendants of scattered clans who were displaced during the mfecane (a sort of diaspora) of the early nineteenth century.

Although nowadays around 8 million Xhosa people are distributed across the country, the population is concentrated in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. The pre-1994 South African system of bantustans attempted to confine Xhosa people to the nominally self-governing 'homelands' of Transkei or Ciskei, now both a part of Eastern Cape Province

The Xhosa and white settlers first encountered one another around Somerset East in the early 1700s. In the late 1700s Afrikaner trekboers migrating outwards from Cape Town came into conflict with Xhosa pastoralists around the Great Fish River region of the Eastern Cape. Following more than 20 years of intermittent conflict, in 1811 to 1812 the Xhosas were forced east by British colonial forces in what was known as the Third Frontier War.

In the years following, many Xhosa-speaking clans were pushed west by expansion of the Zulus, as the northern Nguni put pressure on the southern Nguni as part of the historical process known as the mfecane, or "scattering". Xhosa unity and ability to resist colonial expansion was further weakened by the famines and political divisions that followed the cattle-killing movement of 1856 (see Nongqawuse). Historians now view this movement as a millenialist response both directly to a lung disease spreading among Xhosa cattle at the time, and less directly to the stress to Xhosa society caused by the continuing loss of their territory and autonomy. At least one historian has also suggested that it can be seen as a rebellion against the upper classes of Xhosa society, which used cattle as a means of consolidating wealth and political power, and which had lost respect as they failed to hold back white expansion.

With or without Nongqawuse, white expansion in particular would likely have eventually caused much the same effect as the cattle-killing; the cattle-killing simply likely hastened the speed at which Xhosa people left pastoralism and joined the wage economy.

Some historians argue that this early absorption into the wage economy is the ultimate origin of the long history of trade union membership and political leadership among Xhosa people. That history manifests itself today in high degrees of Xhosa representation in the leadership of the African National Congress, South Africa's ruling political party.

Local Environment

The Xhosa settled on mountain slopes of the Amatola and the Zinterberg Mountains. Many streams drain into great rivers of this Xhosa territory including the Kei and Fish River. Rich soils and plentiful rainfall make the river basins good for farming and grazing making cattle important and the basis of wealth. Traditional foods include sorghum, maize, milk, pumpkins, beans, vegetables, and umphokoqo, or dry maize porridge. Tobacco is an important crop in this area.

Language

Main article: Xhosa language

In South Africa, the Xhosa-speaking people form the second largest language group. The language contains click sounds borrowed from Khoisan languages. Three basic clicks are used when speaking Xhosa. They are C (front-click) as in icici (an earring). Form a slight smile, put tongue behind teeth and pull down. Q (top click) as in iqaa (skunk). Form an O and put tongue on roof (middle) then pull down. X (side-click) as in uxam (water lizard). Pull tongue inward and downward from top roof of mouth. These clicks can also be used in combination with consonant sounds as in ingca. Use c and ng.

Religion

Traditional Xhosa culture includes diviners, who serve as herbalists, prophets, and healers for the community. This job is mostly taken by women, who spend five years as an apprentice. Many Xhosa people are Christian, particularly within the African Initiated Churches such as the Zion Christian Church.

Oral tradition

The key figure in the Xhosa oral tradition is the imbongi (plural: iimbongi) or praise singer. Iimbongi traditionally live close to the chief’s great place and accompany the chief on important occasions - the imbongi Zolani Mkiva preceded Nelson Mandela at his Presidential inauguration in 1994. Iimbongi's poetry praises the chief’s actions and best features, and may also criticise the chief if aspects of his reign or government are unpopular.

Famous Xhosa People

Nelson Mandela is a Xhosa-speaking member of the Thembu people.

Other famous Xhosa speakers include:

See also

References

Note that the figure mentioned on this page is based upon the number of people speaking Xhosa as their home language, which may be greater or less than the total number of people claiming Xhosa descent.

External links

Template:Interwiki

Template:Ethnic Groups South Africa

da:Xhosa-folket de:Xhosa (Volk) es:Xhosa gl:Xhosa it:Xhosa nl:Xhosa (volk) pt:Xhosa sh:Xhosa fi:Xhosat sv:Xhosa

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