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Amhara (አማራ) is an ethnic group in the central highlands of Ethiopia, numbering about 23 million, making up 30.2% of the country's population according to the most recent 1994 census.¹ They speak Amharic, the official language of Ethiopia, and dominate the country's political and economic life.

Agriculture

About 90% of the Amhara are rural and make their living through farming, mostly in the Ethiopian highlands. Prior to the 1974 revolution, absentee landlords maintained strict control over their sharecropping tenants, often allowing them to accumulate crippling debts. After 1974, the landlords were replaced by local government officials, who play a similar role.

Barley, corn, millet, wheat, sorghum and teff, along with beans, peppers, chick-peas and other vegetables are the most important crops; in the highlands one crop per year is normal, while in the lowlands two are possible. Cattle, sheep, and goats are also raised.

Religion

Their predominant religion for centuries has been Christianity, with the Ethiopian Orthodox Church playing a central role in the culture of the country and of the Amharic ethnic group. According to the 1994 census, 81.5% of the Amhara Region of Ethiopia (which is 91.2% Amhara) were Ethiopian Orthodox, with 18.1% being Muslim, and 0.1% being Protestant.² The Ethiopian Orthodox Church maintains close links with the Egyptian Coptic Church. Easter and Epiphany are the most important celebrations, marked with services, feasting and dancing. There are also many "fast" days throughout the year, when only vegetables or fish may be eaten.

Marriages are often arranged, with men marrying in their late teens or early twenties. Traditionally, girls were married as young as 14, but in the 20th century, the minimum age was raised to 18, and this was enforced by the Imperial government. Civil marriages are common, although some marry in churches. After a church wedding, divorce is not considered possible. Each family hosts a separate wedding feast after the wedding.

Upon childbirth, a priest will visit the family to bless the infant, and circumcise him if he is a boy Template:Dubious. The mother and child remain in the house, for forty days after birth of a boy, eighty for a girl, before going to the church for baptism.

Art

Amharic art is typified by religious paintings. One of the most notable features of these is the large eyes of the subjects, who are usually biblical figures.

History

Certain Semitic-speaking tribes, notably the Agazyan, built the Kingdom of Aksum around two millennia ago, and this expanded to contain what is now Eritrea and northern Ethiopia, and at times, portions of Yemen and Sudan. The Amhara inherit their religion and monarchical tradition from Axum, as do Tigrayans.

The region now known as "Amhara" in the feudal era was composed of several provinces with greater or less autonomy, including Begemder, Gojjam, Qwara and Lasta.

Some time in the late middle ages, the Amharic and Tigrinya languages began to be differentiated. Amhara warlords often competed for dominance of the realm with Tigrayan warlords. While many branches of the Imperial dynasty were from the Amharic speaking area, a substantial amount were from Tigray. The Amharas seemed to gain the upper hand with the accession of the so-called Gondar line of the Imperial dynasty in the beginning of the 17th century. However, it soon lapsed into the semi-anarchic era of Zemene Mesafint ("Era of the Princes"), in which rivalling warlords fought for power and the Yejju Oromo inderases (or regents) had effective control, while emperors were just as figureheads. The Tigrayans only made a brief return to the throne in the person of Yohannes IV, whose death in 1889 allowed the base to return to the Amharic speaking province of Shewa.

Historians generally consider the Amhara to have been Ethiopia's ruling elite for centuries, represented by the line of Emperors ending in Haile Selassie. Many commentators, including Marcos Lemma, however, dispute the accuracy of such a statement, arguing that other ethnic groups have always been active in the country's politics.

One possible source of confusion for this stems from the mislabeling of all Amharic-speakers as "Amhara", and the fact that many people from other ethnic groups have Amharic names. Another is the fact that most Ethiopians can trace their ancestry to multiple ethnic groups. In fact, the last Emperor, Haile Selassie I, often counted himself a member of the Gurage tribe on account of his ancestry, and his Empress, Itege Menen Asfaw of Ambassel, was in large part of Oromo descent. The expanded use of Amharic language results mostly from its being the language of the court, and was gradually adopted out of usefulness by many unrelated groups, who then became known as "Amhara" no matter what their ethnic origin.

Notes

Ethiopia: A Model Nation of Minorities (accessed 26 March 2006)
FDRE States: Basic Information - Amhara, Population (accessed 26 March 2006)

Bibliography

Wolf Leslau and Thomas L. Kane (collected and edited), Amharic Cultural Reader. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz 2001. ISBN 3-447-04496-9.

External links

Lemma, Marcos (MD, PhD). "Who ruled Ethiopia? The myth of 'Amara domination'". Ethiomedia.com. http://www.ethiomedia.com/newpress/the_amara_myth.html. Retrieved February 28 2005.

de:Amharen es:Amhara nl:Amharen sh:Amhara (narod) fi:Amharat

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-The '''cuisine of South Africa''' varies widely, representing the [[food]] of indigenous people and of all those who have immigrated since the seventeenth century.
+{{ethnic group|
+|group=Amhara
+|image=[[Image:Tewodros_Head.JPG|200px|]]
+|poptime=23 Million
+|popplace=[[Ethiopia]]
+|rels=[[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity]], [[Islam]]
+|langs=[[Amharic language|Amharic]]
+|related=[[Tigray-Tigrinya people|Tigray]], [[Tigre people|Tigre]], [[Gurage]], [[Argobba language|Argobba]], [[Agaw]], [[Oromo]]
+}}
-Modern South African cookery is influenced by two primary cultural strands:
+'''Amhara''' (&#4768;&#4635;&#4651;) is an ethnic group in the central highlands of [[Ethiopia]], numbering about 23 million, making up 30.2% of the country's population according to the most recent 1994 census.<sup>[[#Notes|1]]</sup> They speak [[Amharic language|Amharic]], the official language of Ethiopia, and dominate the country's political and economic life.
-*Cookery practised by indigenous people of [[South Africa]] such as the [[Khoisan]] and [[Xhosa]]- and [[Sotho]]-speaking people
+==Agriculture==
-*Settler cookery introduced during the colonial period by people of [[Afrikaner]] and [[British]] descent and their [[slaves]] and servants - this includes the cuisine of the [[Cape Malay]] people, which has many characteristics of [[Malaysia]] and [[Java (island)|Java]], and recipes from neighbouring colonial cultures such as [[Portugal|Portuguese]] [[Mozambique]].
+About 90% of the Amhara are rural and make their living through farming, mostly in the Ethiopian highlands. Prior to the 1974 revolution, absentee landlords maintained strict control over their sharecropping tenants, often allowing them to accumulate crippling debts. After 1974, the landlords were replaced by local government officials, who play a similar role.
-==Indigenous cookery==
+Barley, corn, millet, wheat, sorghum and [[teff]], along with beans, peppers, chick-peas and other vegetables are the most important crops; in the highlands one crop per year is normal, while in the lowlands two are possible.  Cattle, sheep, and goats are also raised.
-In the precolonial period indigenous cuisine was characterised by the use of a very wide range of fruits, nuts, bulbs, leaves and other products gathered from wild plants and by the hunting of wild game. The domestication of cattle in the region about two thousand years ago by [[Khoisan]] groups enabled the use of [[milk]] products and the availability of fresh meat on demand. However, during the colonial period the seizure of communal land in South Africa helped to restrict and discourage traditional [[agriculture]] and wild harvesting, and reduced the extent of land available to [[black people|black]] people.
-===Decline of indigenous cookery===
+==Religion==
-[[Urbanisation]] from the nineteenth century onward, coupled with close control over agricultural production, led [[black people|black]] South Africans to rely more and more on comparatively expensive, industrially-processed foodstuffs like wheat flour, white rice, mealie (maize) meal and sugar. Often these foods were imported or processed by [[white people|white]] wholesalers, mills and factories. The consequence was to drastically restrict the range of ingredients and cooking styles used by indigenous cooks.
+Their predominant religion for centuries has been [[Christianity]], with the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Ethiopian Orthodox Church]] playing a central role in the culture of the country and of the Amharic ethnic group. According to the 1994 census, 81.5% of the [[Amhara Region]] of [[Subdivisions of Ethiopia|Ethiopia]] (which is 91.2% Amhara) were [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Ethiopian Orthodox]], with 18.1% being [[Muslim]], and 0.1% being [[P'ent'ay|Protestant]].<sup>[[#Notes|2]]</sup> The Ethiopian Orthodox Church maintains close links with the [[Coptic Christianity|Egyptian Coptic Church]]. [[Easter]] and [[Epiphany]] are the most important celebrations, marked with services, feasting and dancing.  There are also many "fast" days throughout the year, when only vegetables or fish may be eaten.
-==Settler cookery==
+Marriages are often arranged, with men marrying in their late teens or early twenties. Traditionally, girls were married as young as 14, but in the 20th century, the minimum age was raised to 18, and this was enforced by the Imperial government.  Civil marriages are common, although some marry in churches. After a church wedding, divorce is not considered possible. Each family hosts a separate wedding feast after the wedding.
-South Africa was settled from the seventeenth century onwards by colonists from the [[Netherlands]], [[Germany]] and [[France]], and later by arrivals from the [[British Isles]]. These colonists brought European cookery styles with them.
-===Cape Dutch===
+Upon childbirth, a priest will visit the family to bless the infant, and circumcise him if he is a boy {{Dubious}}. The mother and child remain in the house, for forty days after birth of a boy, eighty for a girl, before going to the church for [[baptism]].
-Traditional cookery of South Africa is often referred to as "Cape Dutch"; this cuisine is characterised by the use of spices such as [[nutmeg]], [[allspice]] and [[hot pepper]]s. The Cape Dutch cookery style owes at least as much to the cookery of the [[slaves]] brought by the [[Dutch East India Company]] to the Cape from [[Bengal]], [[Java (island)|Java]] and [[Malaysia]] as it does to the European styles of cookery imported by settlers, and this is reflected in the use of eastern spices and the names given to many of these dishes.
-===Indian cookery===
+==Art==
-[[Curry]] dishes are popular in South Africa among people of all ethnic origins; many dishes came to the country with the thousands of [[Asians in South Africa|Indian]] labourers brought to South Africa in the nineteenth century.
+Amharic art is typified by religious paintings. One of the most notable features of these is the large eyes of the subjects, who are usually biblical figures.
-==Restaurants and fast food outlets==
+==History==
-South Africa can be said to have a real "eating out" culture. While there are some restaurants that specialize in traditional South African dishes or modern interpretations thereof, restaurants featuring other cuisines such as [[Morocco|Moroccan]], [[China|Chinese]], [[West Africa|West African]], [[Congo|Congolese]] and [[Japan|Japanese]] can be found in all of the major cities and many of the larger towns. In addition, there are also a large number of home-grown chain restaurants, such as [[Spur (restaurant chain)|Spur]] and [[Mugg & Bean]].
+Certain [[Semitic languages|Semitic-speaking]] tribes, notably the [[Agazyan]], built the [[Kingdom of Aksum]] around two millennia ago, and this expanded to contain what is now  Eritrea and northern Ethiopia, and at times, portions of Yemen and Sudan. The Amhara inherit their religion and monarchical tradition from Axum, as do [[Tigray-Tigrinya people|Tigrayans]].
-There is also a proliferation of [[fast food]] restaurants in South Africa. While there are some international players such as [[McDonalds]] and [[Kentucky Fried Chicken]] active in the country, they face stiff competition from local chains such as [[Nando's]] and [[Steers]].
+The region now known as "Amhara" in the feudal era was composed of several provinces with greater or less autonomy, including [[Begemder]], [[Gojjam]], [[Qwara]] and [[Lasta]].
-Many of the restaurant chains originating from South-Africa have also expanded successfully outside the borders of the country.
+Some time in the late middle ages, the [[Amharic language|Amharic]] and [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]] languages began to be differentiated. Amhara warlords often competed for dominance of the realm with Tigrayan warlords. While many branches of the Imperial dynasty were from the Amharic speaking area, a substantial amount were from [[Tigray province|Tigray]]. The Amharas seemed to gain the upper hand with the accession of the so-called [[Gondar]] line of the Imperial dynasty in the beginning of the 17th century. However, it soon lapsed into the semi-anarchic era of [[Zemene Mesafint]] ("Era of the Princes"), in which rivalling warlords fought for power and the [[Yejju Oromo]] [[inderase]]s (or regents) had effective control, while [[Emperor of Ethiopia|emperors]] were just as figureheads. The Tigrayans only made a brief return to the throne in the person of [[Yohannes IV]], whose death in 1889 allowed the base to return to the Amharic speaking province of [[Shewa]].
-==Typical South African foods and dishes==
+Historians generally consider the Amhara to have been Ethiopia's ruling elite for centuries, represented by the line of Emperors ending in [[Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia|Haile Selassie]].  Many commentators, including Marcos Lemma, however, dispute the accuracy of such a statement, arguing that other ethnic groups have always been active in the country's politics.
-*[[Biltong]], a salty dried meat (similar to [[jerky (food)|jerky]])
-*[[Bobotie]], a dish of [[Malaysia|Malay]] descent, is like [[meatloaf]] with [[raisin]]s and with baked [[egg (food)|egg]] on top, and is often served with yellow [[rice]], [[sambal]]s, [[coconut]], [[banana]] slices, and [[chutney]]
-*[[Boerewors]], a [[sausage]] that is traditionally ''[[braai]]ed'' ([[barbeque]]d)
-*[[Bunny chow]], [[curry]] stuffed into a hollowed-out loaf of bread
-*[[Chutney]], a sweet sauce made from fruit that is usually poured on meat, especially a local brand called ''[[Mrs Ball's Chutney]]''
-*''[[Frikkadel]]le'' - [[meatballs]]
-*''Gesmoorde vis'', salted [[cod]] with [[potato]]es and [[tomato]]es and sometimes served with [[apricot]] jam
-*''Hoenderpastei'', chicken pie, traditional [[Afrikaans]] fare
-*''[[Isidudu]]'', pumpkin pap
-*[[Koeksuster]]s come in two forms and are a sweet delicacy. Afrikaans koeksusters are twisted [[pastry|pastries]], deep fried and heavily sweetened. Koeksusters found on the [[Cape Flats]] are sweet and spicy, shaped like large eggs, and deep-fried
-*[[Malva Pudding]], a sweet spongy [[Apricot]] [[pudding]] of [[Netherlands|Dutch]] origin.
-*''[[Mashonzha]]'', made from the [[mopane worm]]
-*''[[Melktert]]'' (milk tart), a milk-based dessert
-*[[Mealie-bread]], a sweet bread baked with [[sweetcorn]]
-*[[Mielie-meal]], one of the staple foods, often used in baking but predominately cooked into [[pap (food)|pap]], or ''phutu'', a traditional [[Bantu]] [[porridge]] which is usually eaten with [[bean]]s, [[gravy]], or [[meat]]
-*[[Ostrich]] is an increasingly popular [[protein]] source as it has a low [[cholesterol]] content; it is either used in a stew or filleted and grilled
-*''Pampoenkoekies'' (pumpkin flapjacks), ''patatrolle'' (sweet potato rolls) and a further variety of baked goods where flour has been supplemented with or replaced by [[pumpkin]] or [[sweet potato]]
-*''Potbrood'' (pot bread), savoury bread baked over coals in cast-iron pots
-*''[[Potjiekos]]'', a traditional [[Afrikaans]] [[stew]] made with meat and vegetables and cooked over coals in [[cast-iron]] pots
-*[[Rusk]]s, a rectangular, hard, dry [[biscuit]] eaten after being dunked in [[tea]] or [[coffee]]; they are either home-baked or shop-bought (with the most popular brand being ''[[Ouma Rusks]]'')
-*[[Samosa]] or ''samoosa'', a savoury stuffed [[Indians in South Africa|Indian]] [[pastry]] that is fried
-*[[Sosatie]]s, grilled marinated meat on a [[skewer]]
-*[[Tomato bredie]], a [[lamb]] and [[tomato]] [[stew]]
-*[[Trotter]]s and [[Bean]]s, from the [[Eastern Cape|Cape]], made from boiled pig's or sheep's trotters and [[onion]]s and beans
-*''[[Umngqusho]]'', a dish made from [[semolina]] and black-eyed [[pea]]s
-*''[[Vetkoek]]'' (fat cake), deep-fried [[dough]] balls, typically stuffed with meat or served with jam
-*''[[Waterblommetjiebredie|Waterblommetjie bredie]]'' (water flower stew), meat [[stew]]ed with the flower of the [[Cape Pondweed]]
-==References==
+One possible source of confusion for this stems from the mislabeling of all [[Amharic language|Amharic-speakers]] as "Amhara", and the fact that many people from other ethnic groups have Amharic [[Onomastics|names]].  Another is the fact that most Ethiopians can trace their ancestry to multiple ethnic groups. In fact, the last Emperor, [[Haile Selassie]] I, often counted himself a member of the [[Gurage]] tribe on account of his ancestry, and his Empress, Itege [[Menen Asfaw]] of [[Ambassel]], was in large part of [[Oromo]] descent. The expanded use of Amharic language results mostly from its being the language of the court, and was gradually adopted out of usefulness by many unrelated groups, who then became known as "Amhara" no matter what their ethnic origin.
-*Coetzee, Renata, 1977. ''The South African Culinary Tradition'', C. Struik Publishers, Cape Town, South Africa.
-*Leipoldt, C. Louis, 1976. ''Leipoldt’s Cape Cookery'', Fleesch and Partners, Cape Town, South Africa.
-*Van Wyk, B. and Gericke, N., 2000. ''People's plants: A guide to useful plants of Southern Africa'', Briza, [[Pretoria]], [[South Africa]].
-*Wylie, D., 2001. ''Starving on a Full Stomach: Hunger and the Triumph of Cultural Racism in Modern South Africa'', University of Virginia Press, Charlottesville, VA., United States of America.
-*[http://www.routledge-ny.com/ref/africanhist/farming.html Routledge Encyclopaedia of Africa - Farming]
-==External links==
+==Notes==
-*[http://www.southafrica.info/plan_trip/holiday/food_wine/food.htm South African cuisine - International Marketing Council of South Africa web site]
+#[http://bxabeg.people.wm.edu/Ethiopia.Census%20Portrait.pdf Ethiopia: A Model Nation of Minorities] (accessed 26 March 2006)
+# [http://www.ethiopar.net/English/basinfo/infoamra.htm FDRE States: Basic Information - Amhara], Population (accessed 26 March 2006)
+==Bibliography==
+* Wolf Leslau and Thomas L. Kane (collected and edited), ''Amharic Cultural Reader''. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz 2001. ISBN 3-447-04496-9.
+==External links==
+* Lemma, Marcos (MD, PhD). {{cite web | title=Who ruled Ethiopia? The myth of 'Amara domination' | work=Ethiomedia.com | url=http://www.ethiomedia.com/newpress/the_amara_myth.html | accessdate=February 28 | accessyear=2005}}
-{{Cuisine of Africa}}
+[[Category:Ethnic groups in Ethiopia]]
-[[Category:South African cuisine|*]]
-[[Category:African cuisine|South Africa]]
-[[de:Kap-Küche]]
+[[de:Amharen]]
-[[uk:Південноафриканська кухня]]
+[[es:Amhara]]
+[[nl:Amharen]]
+[[sh:Amhara (narod)]]
+[[fi:Amharat]]