Difference between revisions of "AY Honors/African Lore/Answer Key"

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{{ethnic group|
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[[Image:Acholiland,_Uganda.png|thumb|right|250px|Acholiland, Uganda]]
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|group=Xhosa
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'''Acholi''' (also '''Acoli''') are the people of the districts of [[Gulu]], [[Kitgum]] [[Pader District|Pader]] (known as [[Acholiland]]) in northern [[Uganda]], and [[Magwe County]] in southern [[Sudan]]. The 1991 Ugandan census counted 746,796 Acholi; a further 45,000 Acholi live outside of Uganda.<ref>[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=ach Acholi: A language of Uganda], [[Ethnologue]]</ref>
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|image=[[Image:Nelson_Mandela.jpg]]
 
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[[Nelson Mandela]] is a famous Xhosa-speaker.
 
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|poptime=2001: '''7.9 million''' est. <sup>[[#References|1]]</sup>
 
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|popplace=[[Eastern Cape Province|Eastern Cape]]: '''5.4 million''',
 
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[[Western Cape Province|Western Cape]]: '''1.1 million''',
 
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[[Gauteng Province|Gauteng]]: '''0.7 million''',
 
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[[Free State Province|Free State]]: '''0.25 million''',
 
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[[Kwazulu-Natal Province|Kwazulu-Natal]]: '''0.22 million'''
 
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(2001 est. <sup>[[#References|1]]</sup>)
 
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|langs=[[Xhosa language|Xhosa]], many also speak [[English language|English]] or [[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]].
 
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|rels=[[Animist]], [[Christian]]
 
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|related=[[Bantu]], [[Nguni]], [[Basotho]], [[Zulu]], [[Khoisan]]
 
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}}
 
  
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The '''Xhosa''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] pronunciation: {{IPA|/ko'sɑ, -zə/}}) people are a group of peoples of [[Bantu]] origins living in south-east [[South Africa]], and in the last two centuries throughout the southern and central southern parts of the country.
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==Language==
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{{main|Acholi language}}
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==History of the Xhosa==
 
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The Xhosa are part of the southern [[Nguni]] migration which slowly moved south from the region around the [[African_Great_Lakes|Great Lakes]]; based on linguistic and archeological evidence, the ancestors of the Xhosa are likely to have arrived in South Africa around 1500 years ago. [http://www.museums.org.za/sh/arch/earlyaf.htm]
 
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The name Xhosa refers to a specific tribal leader, called uXhosa, from whom the Xhosa clan descend. They refer to themselves as the '''amaXhosa''' and  their language as [[Xhosa language|isiXhosa]], a [[Bantu]] language.  Xhosa society was historically viewed as an 'open' society, because of its readiness to learn from, trade and interact with other societies. This included the incorporation or absorption of entire [[Khoi]] and [[Griqua]] cultural groups into Xhosa communities, often through marriage, and the wholesale adoption of [[Khoisan]] [[loanwords]] into Xhosa vocabulary.
 
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The Xhosa people split in the eighteenth century as the result of a succession dispute between chiefs. The two branches of the group are known as the Gcaleka and the Rharhabe or Ngqika. The name Xhosa is also often used to refer to anyone from a number of different Xhosa-speaking ethnic groups that includes the [[Pondo]] and Thembu, neighbours of the Xhosa people, and the Mfengu people, who are descendants of scattered clans who were displaced during the [[mfecane]] (an enormous upheaval of southern African peoples in the early nineteenth century, resulting in an internal [[diaspora]]).
 
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Although presently at least 8 million Xhosa people are distributed across the country, the population is concentrated in the [[Eastern Cape]] province of South Africa.  The pre-1994 South African system of [[bantustan]]s attempted to confine Xhosa people to the nominally self-governing 'homelands' of [[Transkei]] or [[Ciskei]], now both a part of the Eastern Cape Province.
 
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The Xhosa and white settlers first encountered one another around [[Somerset East]] in the early 1700s. In the late 1700s [[Afrikaner]] [[trekboer]]s migrating outwards from Cape Town came into conflict with Xhosa pastoralists around the [[Great Fish River]] region of the [[Eastern Cape]]. Following [[Cape Frontier Wars|more than 20 years of intermittent conflict]], in 1811 to 1812 the Xhosas were forced east by [[British Empire|British]] colonial forces in the [[Third Frontier War]].
 
  
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In the years following, many Xhosa-speaking clans were pushed west by expansion of the [[Zulu]]s, as the northern [[Nguni]] put pressure on the southern Nguni as part of the historical process known as the [[mfecane]], or "scattering". Xhosa unity and ability to resist colonial expansion was further weakened by the [[famine]]s and political divisions that followed the cattle-killing movement of 1856 (see [[Nongqawuse]]). Historians now view this movement as a [[millenialism|millenialist]] response both directly to a lung disease spreading among Xhosa cattle at the time, and less directly to the stress to Xhosa society caused by the continuing loss of their territory and autonomy. At least one historian has also suggested that it can be seen as a rebellion against the upper classes of Xhosa society, which used cattle as a means of consolidating wealth and political power, and which had lost respect as they failed to hold back white expansion.{{cn}}
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The [[Acholi language]] is a [[Western Nilotic languages|Western Nilotic]] language, classified as [[Luo languages|Luo]], and is [[mutually intelligible]] with [[Lango]] and other Luo languages.
  
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Nongqawuse probaly hastened Xhosa people leaving pastoralism and joining the wage economy a process also effected by white expansion.{{cn}}
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The ''[[Song of Lawino|Song of Lawino]]'', one of the most successful African literary works, was written by [[Okot p'Bitek]] in Acholi, and later translated to [[English language|English]].
  
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Some historians argue that this early absorption into the wage economy is the ultimate origin of the long history of trade union membership and political leadership among Xhosa people. That history manifests itself today in high degrees of Xhosa representation in the leadership of the [[African National Congress]], South Africa's ruling political party.
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==History==
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{{see also|Luo}}
  
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==Local environment==
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The Acholi are a Luo people, who are said to have come to northern Uganda from the area now known as [[Bahr el Ghazal]] in southern [[Sudan]]. Starting in the late [[seventeenth century]], a new sociopolitical order developed among the Luo of northern Uganda, mainly characterized by the formation of chiefdoms headed by ''Rwodi'' (sg. Rwot, 'ruler'). By the mid-[[nineteenth century]], about 60 small chiefdoms existed in eastern Acholiland.<ref>Webster 1970.</ref> During the second half of the nineteenth century [[Arabic language|Arabic]]-speaking traders from the north started to call them ''Shooli'', a term which transformed into 'Acholi'.<ref>According to Atkinson (1994).</ref>
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The Xhosa settled on mountain slopes of the Amatola and the Winterberg Mountains. Many streams drain into great rivers of this Xhosa territory including the Kei and Fish River. Rich soils and plentiful rainfall make the river basins good for farming and grazing making cattle important and the basis of wealth. Traditional foods include [[sorghum]], [[maize]], [[milk]], [[pumpkins]], [[beans]], [[vegetables]], and ''umphokoqo'', or dry maize porridge. [[Tobacco]] is an important crop in this area.
 
  
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==Language==
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Their traditional dwelling-places were circular huts with a high peak, furnished with a mud sleeping-platform, jars of grain and a sunk fireplace, with the walls daubed with mud and decorated with geometrical or conventional designs in red, white or grey. They were  skilled hunters, using nets and spears, and kept [[Goat|goats]], [[sheep]] and [[cattle]]. In war they used spears and long, narrow shields of giraffe or ox hide.
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:''Main article: [[Xhosa language]]''
 
  
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In [[South Africa]], the Xhosa-speaking people form the second largest language group (after [[Zulu]], to which the Xhosa language is very closed related). Among a wide variety of common speech sounds, the Xhosa language famously contains a variety of consonantal 'click' sounds, which have been borrowed from now extinct [[Khoisan]] languages of the region.
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During Uganda's [[History of Uganda|colonial period]], the [[United Kingdom|British]] encouraged political and economic development in the south of the country, in particular among the [[Baganda]]. In contrast, the Acholi and other northern ethnic groups supplied much of the national manual labor and came to comprise a majority of the military, creating what some have called a "military ethnocracy." This reached its height with the [[coup d'état]] of Acholi General [[Tito Okello]], and came to a crashing end with the defeat of  Okello and the Acholi-dominated army by the [[National Resistance Army]] led by now-President [[Yoweri Museveni]].
  
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Xhosa has three basic click consonants: a dental (front) click, written with the letter 'c', e.g. ''icici'' 'earring' (very similar to the English tut-tut sound of disapproval); a palatal (top click), written with the letter 'q', e.g. ''iqaqa'' 'skunk' (similar to the imitation of a bottle being decorked); and a lateral (side) click, written with the letter 'x', e.g. ''xoxa'' 'discuss'. Each click can be used in up to six contrastive forms (each one is a completely separate consonant in Xhosa), e.g. c (plain), ch (aspirated), gc (voiced), nc (nasalised), ngc (nasalised voiced), nkc (nasalised, velarised). By contrast, Xhosa has five straightforward Spanish-type vowels (a, e, i, o, u).
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[[Image:Kids3.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Children in an [[internally displaced person|IDP]] camp in [[Kitgum]]]]
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The Acholi are known to the outside world mainly because of the insurgency of the [[Lord's Resistance Army]] (LRA) led by [[Joseph Kony]], an Acholi from Gulu. LRA's activities have been concentrated within [[Acholiland]], and populous Acholi remain [[internally displaced person]]s.
  
 
==Religion==
 
==Religion==
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Traditional Xhosa culture includes [[diviners]], who serve as herbalists, prophets, and healers for the community. This job is mostly taken by women, who spend five years as an apprentice. Many Xhosa people are [[Christian]], particularly within the African Initiated Churches such as the [[Zion Christian Church]].
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Most Acholi are [[Protestant]], [[Catholicism|Catholic]] and, in lesser numbers, [[Muslim]]. Nevertheless, the traditional belief in guardian and ancestor spirits remains strong, though it is now often described in [[Christian]] or [[Islam]]ic terms.
  
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==Oral tradition==
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== Notable Acholi people ==
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The key figure in the Xhosa oral tradition is the ''imbongi'' (plural: ''iimbongi'') or praise singer. ''Iimbongi'' traditionally live close to the chief’s 'great place' (the cultural and political focus of his activity); they accompany the chief on important occasions - the ''imbongi'' Zolani Mkiva preceded [[Nelson Mandela]] at his Presidential inauguration in 1994. Iimbongi's poetry praises the chief’s actions and best features, and may also criticise the chief if aspects of his reign or government are unpopular. 
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* [[Betty Bigombe]], former MP and conflict mediator
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* [[Joseph Kony]], leader of the rebel [[Lord's Resistance Army]]
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* [[Nobert Mao]], Gulu District [[Local Council]] V Chairman
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* [[Tito Okello]], [[President of Uganda]] for six months in 1985
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* [[Geoffrey Oryema]], exiled singer
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* [[Olara Otunnu]], former [[Under-Secretary-General of the United Nations|United Nations Under-Secretary-General]] and Special Representative for Children and Armed Conflict
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* [[Okot p'Bitek]], poet and author of the ''[[Song of Lawino|Song of Lawino]]''
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* [[Akena p'Ojok]], Former UNLF Vice President, Former UPC Member of Parliament and Minister of Power In Obote II Regime
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* [[Alice Auma]], spirit medium and rebel leader
  
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==Famous Xhosa people==
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==References==
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[[Nelson Mandela]] is a Xhosa-speaking member of the Thembu people.
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*Atkinson, Ronald Raymond (1994) ''The roots of ethnicity: the origins of the Acholi of Uganda before 1800''. Kampala: Fountain Publishers. ISBN 9970-02156-7.
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* Dwyer, John Orr (1972) 'The Acholi of Uganda: adjustment to imperialism'. (unpublished thesis) Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International .
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Other famous Xhosa speakers include:
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* Girling, F.K. (1960) ''The Acholi of Uganda'' (Colonial Office / Colonial research studies vol. 30). London: Her majesty's stationery office.
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* Webster, J. (1970) 'State formation and fragmentation in Agago, Eastern Acholi', ''Provisional council for the social sciences in East Africa; 1st annual conference'', vol 3., p. 168-197.
  
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*[[Stephen Biko]]
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=== Notes ===
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*[[Bulelani Ngcuka]]
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<!-- This article uses [[Wikipedia:Footnotes]]. Please use this format when adding references to material in the article. External links added directly to this section will be swiftly deleted without notice. -->
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*[[Thabo Mbeki]]
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<div class="references-small">
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*[[Makhaya Ntini]]
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<references/>
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*[[Desmond Tutu]]
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</div>
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*[[Brenda Fassie]]
 
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*[[Winnie Madikizela-Mandela]]
 
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*[[Chris Hani]]
 
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*[[Oliver Tambo]]
 
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*[[Walter Sisulu]]
 
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*[[Miriam Makeba]]
 
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*[[Robert Sobukwe]]
 
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*[[John Kani]]
 
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*[[Winston Ntshona]]
 
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*[[Enoch Sontonga]]
 
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*[[Govan Mbeki]]
 
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*[[Archibald Campbell Jordan]]
 
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*[[Victoria Mxenge]]
 
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*[[S.E.K. Mqhayi]]
 
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*[[Amampondo]]
 
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*[[Fats Bookulane]]
 
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*[[Ken Gampu]]
 
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*[[Bongani Ndodana]]
 
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*[[General Bantu Holomisa]]
 
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*[[Percy Qoboza]]
 
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*[[Zwelithini Tunyiswa]]
 
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==See also==
 
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*Reverend [[Henry Hare Dugmore]], the first translator of the [[Christian]] [[bible]] and [[psalms]] into Xhosa
 
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*[[Partners Across The Ocean]]
 
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==References==
 
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* [http://www.southafrica.info/ess_info/sa_glance/demographics/census-main.htm Results of the 2001 South African census]
 
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::Note that the figure mentioned on this page is based upon the number of people speaking [[Xhosa language|Xhosa]] as their home language, which may be greater or less than the total number of people claiming Xhosa descent. In addition, several million people in the Johannesburg-Soweto region speak Xhosa or [[Zulu]] as a second or third language. For a majority of these, the two languages become difficult to distinguish (unsurprising given the extreme closeness of their linguistic relationship).  
 
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* Reader, J., 1997. ''[[Africa]]: A Biography of the Continent'', Vintage Books, [[New York]], NY, United States of America.
 
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* Kaschula, Russell ''[[The Heritage Library of African People]]:  Xhosa,'' New York:  The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc., 1997.
 
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
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{{interwiki|code=xh}}
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*[http://www.acholinet.com/ AcholiNet.com], Acholi news, culture, acholi music downloads, forums and Acholi classified
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*[http://www.statssa.gov.za/census2001/digiAtlas/index.html 2001 Digital Census Atlas]
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*[http://www.rupiny.co.ug Rupiny], a newspaper in [[Acholi language|Acholi]] and [[Lango]] ([[Luo languages|Luo]])
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* [http://www.sacred-texts.com/afr/xft/ Xhosa Folklore] - a collection of Xhosa folklore collected in 1886.
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*[http://www.language-museum.com/a/acholi.php Acholi sample at Language-Museum.com]
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* [http://www.google.com/intl/xh/ Xhosa Google] - Google interface in Xhosa
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*[http://www.ugandacan.org/ Uganda Conflict Action Network] working for peace in northern Uganda
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*[http://www.invisiblechildren.ca/ Invisible Acholi Children Global Night Commute]
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[[Category:Xhosa|*]]
 
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[[Category:Ethnic groups in South Africa]]  
 
  
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{{Ethnic Groups South Africa}}
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[[Category:Ethnic groups in Uganda]]
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[[Category:Ethnic groups in Sudan]]
  
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[[da:Xhosa-folket]]
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[[de:Acholi (Volk)]]
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[[de:Xhosa (Volk)]]
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[[es:Acholi]]
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[[es:Xhosa]]
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[[it:Acholi]]
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[[gl:Xhosa]]
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[[nds:Acholi]]
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[[it:Xhosa]]
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[[pt:Acholi (povo)]]
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[[nl:Xhosa (volk)]]
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[[sh:Ačoli]]
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[[pt:Xhosa]]
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[[sv:Acholi]]
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[[sh:Xhosa]]
 
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[[fi:Xhosat]]
 
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[[sv:Xhosa]]
 

Revision as of 01:59, 18 September 2006

Acholiland, Uganda

Acholi (also Acoli) are the people of the districts of Gulu, Kitgum Pader (known as Acholiland) in northern Uganda, and Magwe County in southern Sudan. The 1991 Ugandan census counted 746,796 Acholi; a further 45,000 Acholi live outside of Uganda.&

Language

Template:Main

The Acholi language is a Western Nilotic language, classified as Luo, and is mutually intelligible with Lango and other Luo languages.

The Song of Lawino, one of the most successful African literary works, was written by Okot p'Bitek in Acholi, and later translated to English.

History

Template:See also

The Acholi are a Luo people, who are said to have come to northern Uganda from the area now known as Bahr el Ghazal in southern Sudan. Starting in the late seventeenth century, a new sociopolitical order developed among the Luo of northern Uganda, mainly characterized by the formation of chiefdoms headed by Rwodi (sg. Rwot, 'ruler'). By the mid-nineteenth century, about 60 small chiefdoms existed in eastern Acholiland.& During the second half of the nineteenth century Arabic-speaking traders from the north started to call them Shooli, a term which transformed into 'Acholi'.&

Their traditional dwelling-places were circular huts with a high peak, furnished with a mud sleeping-platform, jars of grain and a sunk fireplace, with the walls daubed with mud and decorated with geometrical or conventional designs in red, white or grey. They were skilled hunters, using nets and spears, and kept goats, sheep and cattle. In war they used spears and long, narrow shields of giraffe or ox hide.

During Uganda's colonial period, the British encouraged political and economic development in the south of the country, in particular among the Baganda. In contrast, the Acholi and other northern ethnic groups supplied much of the national manual labor and came to comprise a majority of the military, creating what some have called a "military ethnocracy." This reached its height with the coup d'état of Acholi General Tito Okello, and came to a crashing end with the defeat of Okello and the Acholi-dominated army by the National Resistance Army led by now-President Yoweri Museveni.

Children in an IDP camp in Kitgum

The Acholi are known to the outside world mainly because of the insurgency of the Lord's Resistance Army (LRA) led by Joseph Kony, an Acholi from Gulu. LRA's activities have been concentrated within Acholiland, and populous Acholi remain internally displaced persons.

Religion

Most Acholi are Protestant, Catholic and, in lesser numbers, Muslim. Nevertheless, the traditional belief in guardian and ancestor spirits remains strong, though it is now often described in Christian or Islamic terms.

Notable Acholi people

References

  • Atkinson, Ronald Raymond (1994) The roots of ethnicity: the origins of the Acholi of Uganda before 1800. Kampala: Fountain Publishers. ISBN 9970-02156-7.
  • Dwyer, John Orr (1972) 'The Acholi of Uganda: adjustment to imperialism'. (unpublished thesis) Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International .
  • Girling, F.K. (1960) The Acholi of Uganda (Colonial Office / Colonial research studies vol. 30). London: Her majesty's stationery office.
  • Webster, J. (1970) 'State formation and fragmentation in Agago, Eastern Acholi', Provisional council for the social sciences in East Africa; 1st annual conference, vol 3., p. 168-197.

Notes

  1. ↑ Acholi: A language of Uganda, Ethnologue
  2. ↑ Webster 1970.
  3. ↑ According to Atkinson (1994).

External links

de:Acholi (Volk) es:Acholi it:Acholi nds:Acholi pt:Acholi (povo) sh:Ačoli sv:Acholi

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