Difference between revisions of "AY Honors/Skiing - Cross Country/Answer Key"

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[[Image:Skipcxc.JPG|thumb|Skiing by free technique/skating]]
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<!--{{Honor_Master|honor=Skiing - Cross Country|master=Recreation}}-->
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<!-- 1. List and describe the principle characteristics, qualities, and sizing of the following cross-country skiing equipment: -->
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The skis are long and thin, to distribute the weight of the skier and allow the skier to move quickly. Typical ski dimensions are 2 meters in length, about 5 centimeters in width and one to four centimeters in thickness at different stations along the length of the ski. Depending on the ski design and purpose, they are fit to the skier based on height and weight. Cross country skis are sometimes informally known as "skinny skis" because of their thinness compared to alpine skis.
  
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'''Cross-country skiing''' (aka '''XC skiing''') is an adventure and fitness activity as well as a competitive [[winter sport]] popular in many countries with large snowfields, primarily in [[Europe]] and [[Canada]].
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<!--T:3-->
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In recent years, waxless skis have carved a niche in the market among casual skiers. Waxless skis have a fish scale, cross-hatched or ridged pattern in the kick zone to provide grip. A waxless ski is inferior to a finely tuned waxed ski, but does not require the sometimes time-consuming and sometimes costly selection and application of kick wax or klister and will work between temperatures, an important advantage in areas with many sun/shadow boundaries. Some skiers apply a layer of glide wax to keep them sliding smoothly and protecting the surface from dirt and ice build-up. There are specialty liquid wax products on the market manufactured for waxless skis, though standard glide wax can also be used on the tips and tails of the ski.  
  
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XC skiing as a sport is part of the [[Nordic skiing]] family, which also includes [[ski jumping]], and a combination sport of XC skiing and skijumping called [[Nordic combined]]. Free technique XC skiing (see below for techniques) is also the method of locomotion in the combination sport of [[Biathlon]], which adds rifle shooting to the skiing. As an adventure or leisure activity, XC skiing may be viewed as a kind of "[[bushwalking]] on [[ski]]s", where skiers tackle trails of various lengths and difficulties.  Some skiers stay out for extended periods using [[tent]]s and equipment similar to bushwalkers, others take relatively short trips from ski resorts. There is also the possibility of using huts provided along some tourist trails, or to go by skis from private wood cabins in the mountains to visit other recreational cabin dwellers in the area.
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Waxless skis are better suited to recreational skiers who simply want to get out on the trail with minimal time spent on maintenance, as they generally produce too much drag for competitive skiers.
  
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==Equipment==
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<!--T:5-->
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Waxless skis are sometimes used by Nordic racers during variable ski conditions such as temperatures over freezing. In fact, some Nordic ski racers using waxless skis have beaten racers who used waxable skis due to the variable and changing conditions.
  
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The [[ski]]s are long and thin to distribute the weight of the skier and allow her/him to move quickly. Typical ski dimensions are length 2 m (6&ndash;7 ft), width 5&ndash;6 cm (2 in) and thickness 1 cm (&frac12; in). Like downhill skiers, XC skiers carry two [[Ski pole|pole]]s, usually made of [[aluminium]], [[Glass-reinforced plastic|fiberglass]] more expensive poles are made of graphite or some other light material with a spike at the end to provide a fixed pivot when the pole penetrates through to a hard surface, and a [[plastic]] ring (or "basket") both to provide maximum impetus from thick snow and to ensure the pole only goes to its designed embedding depth, so as to optimise the angle of arm force. The skier's [[ski boots|footwear]] is attached to the ski with a [[Ski binding|binding]]. There are many different types of bindings and boots, more or less standard (some even proprietary) and so it is important to choose corresponding pieces of equipment.
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There are three primary groups of binding systems used in modern cross-country skiing:
 +
*NNN (New Nordic Norm) &ndash; including the new R4 NIS variant
 +
*SNS (Salomon Nordic System) Profil
 +
*SNS Pilot
  
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Equipment, and in particular skis and poles differ depending on the desired skiing technique. Skating or Freestyle poles are usually longer than those used for the Classical technique. Typically skating poles should reach either the skiers chin or up as long as the eye brows depeding of skier preference. In contrast classical ski poles would of a legth so that they reach the skier's arm pit.
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[[Image:Finnish Soldiers Skiing.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Finnish]] soldiers on skis. Virtually every [[infantry]] soldier is given ski training in the [[army]].]]
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Older styled three-pin bindings (Nordic Norm), with or without cables, are still used by backcountry and Telemarking enthusiasts.
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==Waxes==
 
  
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There are a wide variety of waxes for Nordic Skiing. The waxes can be classified into two main categories: Glide and Kick waxes. Glide waxes are ironed onto a ski and used to make a ski glide faster. Glide waxes range in price from $5-$200, depending on if you are training or need a race wax. Glide waxes are applied to the full length of skate skis, and outside the kick zone of classic skis. Kick waxes are used on classic skis. Kick waxes are applied in the 'kick zone' of classic skis if the ski is not a fish scale type ski.  Kick waxes are used to get a grip on snow. When snow becomes old, refrozen, and/or warm (35 degrees plus), a different type of kick wax called klister is used. Klisters are extremely sticky and get a grip on snow, but are hard to remove.
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Further variants to NNN and SNS are "BC" (back-country) standards, where the toe hold in the binding is wider and the bar in the boot's toe is longer and thicker in order to give further lateral rigidity. This added strength and rigidity is especially important with the stiffer boots and heavier skis used in backcountry skiing.  
  
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A recreational Classical skier might decide not to worry about waxing skis and select a waxless classical skis. There are various types of waxeless skis, the most popular being the "fishscale" ski.
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The existing variety of binding systems, none of which are compatible with the other, has long since been a source of frustration for skiers ever since manufacturers diverged from the almost universal three-pin standard. Whereas downhill skiing has a common binding system allowing any boot to work with any binding short of the dynafit-system, modern cross-country skiers must match the skis' binding system to the boot type. When it is time to change the boot, the skier must either be limited to boots of the same binding system or also change the skis' binding.
  
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The more serious recreational Classical skier will achieve better performance ( ie better/faster glide on the downhill sections and better grip on the uphill sections)by selecting a ski that requires waxing. They will wax approximately the middle half of the ski with a grip wax and the two outer quaters of the ski ( tip and tail) with a glide wax.
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====New Nordic Norm==== <!--T:10-->
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Rottefella developed the New Nordic Norm (NNN) binding, and licenses it to Rossignol, Madshus, Atomic, and, beginning in 2007, Fischer. } These bindings have subtypes, such as the NNN-BC for backcountry use, the R3 Skate, the R3 Classic, and the R4 NIS (Nordic Integrated System). The NIS system requires skis that have a permanently bonded plate that the binding slides onto. This allows for the skier to mount their own bindings without needing to screw into the ski. By doing this the skier can easily tune the position of the binding relative to the center of gravity of the ski, said to be useful in different snow conditions. NNN boots are made by Alpina Sports, Madshus, Rossignol and beginning in 2007, Fischer. The R3 and R4 are generally the choice for World Cup Racers using NNN. } These are distinguished from the SNS (Salomon and Atomic) binding in that all NNN bindings have two longitudinal ridges that stick out from the bottom of the binding that mate with corresponding slots in NNN boots. There is much debate over which is the superior binding system: SNS or NNN. Overall, the differences between the NNN and SNS binding systems are minuscule to the average skier; the choice should come down to which binding fits with the boot that happens to fit a given skier.
  
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The serious Classical racer will purchase skis of a stiffness that matches their weight and wax the skis in a similar way to the serious recreational classical skier but will use better more expensive waxes. Waxing the kick zone (center half)and glide (tip and tail) zones to match their technical ability.
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The ''R4 NIS'' binding, made by Rottefella and Rossignol, is the newest variant of the NNN binding. These bindings are compatible with any NNN boot, but can only be used on skis that come with the permanently bonded plate, presently made only by Rossignol, Madshus, and Fischer. The NIS binding made its debut to the general public in 2005.
  
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==History==
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====Salomon Nordic System Profil==== <!--T:12-->
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[[Image:Skiing kananaskis 018.jpg|thumb|right|[[Kananaskis Country]], [[Alberta]]]]
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[[Image:Cross-country skiing, bindings.JPG|right|thumb|SNS binding and ski boots, both of the Salomon brand.]]
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Cross-country skiing originated in Scandinavian countries in prehistoric times. It may have also been practiced by Native Americans for similar lengths of time, although the Norwegians [[Snowshoe Thompson]] and [[Jackrabbit Johannsen]] are widely credited for introducing the sport to North America.[[http://www.tahoecountry.com/oldtimetahoe/snowshoe.html]] This sport has been used by explorers by means of transport, and all Scandinavian armies train their infantry on skis for winter operations. Traditionally, all of the equipment was made of natural materials: wooden skis and bamboo poles with leather hand straps. Footwear was usually sturdy leather boots with thick soles. Bindings evolved from simple straps made of twisted wood-based thread, to the so-called Kandahar binding with the fastening of both the boot’s front and back, to the ‘Rat’s Trap’ front-only binding, which became various modern bindings.
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Salomon Nordic System (SNS) bindings, made by Salomon and Atomic, however, have their advantages too. Boots that are compatible with the SNS Profil system are made by Salomon, Atomic, Adidas, and Hartjes. SNS Profil bindings are used for both Skating and Classic. As opposed to the SNS Pilot's two axes, these boots have only one axis at the front of the sole. Pilots are used by many different racers on the World Cup Circuit. Profil bindings are the standard binding for SNS users, its only competition being the SNS Pilot system. Profil comes in "Equipe" models for racing, "Active" for recreational racing/combination, Auto Touring, and Back Country. Fischer was for many years synonymous with SNS as well, but switched to the more widely used NNN for the 2007/2008 season and beyond.
  
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==Sports events==
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====Salomon Nordic System Pilot==== <!--T:13-->
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SNS Pilot bindings, compatible with Salomon, Atomic, Adidas and Hartjes boots. As of the 2006/2007 season, Atomic will also have SNS pilot on their boots. The idea for these bindings came from Bjørn Dæhlie. Pilots are used mostly by elite skiers at the Collegiate/Olympians/World Cup/National level, although it is common to find High School/Citizen Racers with these bindings and their counterpart boots. Pilots are more expensive than Profils at about 100 U.S. dollars for a pair, and have two completely different designs for skate skiing and classical skiing. In Pilot boots, two axes (metal bars), one positioned about 1" (2.5 cm) behind the other, click into two different slots in the Pilot binding. Profil boots only have one axis and therefore cannot fit into Pilot bindings. However, Pilot boots can fit into most Profil bindings, due to a small space behind the front of the boot for the other axis. Pilot Skate bindings are superior to Profil due to the two latches reducing ski motion in the air. The Pilot Classic (released at the end of the 2005-2006 season) doesn't have the bumper found on all NNN and SNS Profil bindings. These new boots and bindings provide a superior subtle kick through a spring loaded back slot for the back axis. Unlike the rubber bumpers, this spring has adjustable tension that can be changed in different snow conditions. Fischer has now started producing their new boots with the NNN system.
  
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Today, there are several types of cross-country competitive events, involving [[racing|race]]s of various types and lengths, as well as the [[biathlon]], involving a combination of cross-country skiing and [[rifle]] shooting. The [[Winter Olympics]], [[International Ski Federation|FIS]] World Championships and FIS World Cup events have long been a showcase for the world's fastest cross country skiers. There are also special extreme distance ski races, sometimes called [[ski marathon]]s, like [[Vasaloppet]], in [[Sweden]], the oldest, longest, are used: only one of them in a given race, or, in case of the so-called "double pursuit" event, the two styles are used each in their own separate half of the race (with a change of equipment in "pit stops" half way through).
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Shoes (boots) are covered in the Bindings section above.
  
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*[[Olympic medalists in cross-country skiing]]
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<!--T:27-->
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*[[Nordic skiing World Championships|Cross-country skiing World Championships]]
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*[[Cross-country skiing World Cup medalists]]
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Like alpine skiing, cross-country skiers carry two poles, usually made of aluminium or fiberglass. More expensive poles are made of graphite or carbon fiber or some other strong but lightweight material. Poles have a spike at the end to provide a fixed pivot when the pole penetrates through to a hard surface, and a plastic web or disc (called the basket), to provide extra purchase in snow and to ensure the pole doesn't sink too deeply.
  
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==Techniques==
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<!-- 2. Describe and demonstrate how the above gear would be prepared for use and cared for both on the field and during the off season. -->
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There are three main techniques used in XC skiing. Specially adapted equipment is available to suit each.
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<!-- 3. What consideration should be made when selecting clothing to be worn while cross-country skiing? What features would you look for when selecting a pack for cross-country ski touring? -->
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<!-- 4. Demonstrate properly on skis the following travel techniques: -->
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<!-- 7. Know and explain the official National Ski rules for conduct in cross-country skiing. -->
  
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The Classical technique was the first technique that was used and although not the fastest (in the same way as the breaststroke swimming technique) it is still used today by many, especially beginners, as it tends to be the simpler easier to learn, but take many years to get really good.  
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Always practice the Leave No Trace 7 Principles.
  
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The skating Technique, developed as a result of racing and is harder to learn but once mastered the skiers can travel much faster. Skating can also be mastered faster than classical.  
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<!--T:52-->
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1) Plan ahead and prepare. 2) Travel and camp on durable surfaces. 3) Dispose of waste properly. 4) Leave what you find. 5) Minimize campfire impacts (be careful with fire). 6) Respect wildlife. 7) Be considerate of other visitors. © 1999 by the Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor Ethics: www.LNT.org.
  
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Telemarking is a technique used to go down hill on Cross country skis. Usually the skiers will use the classical technique for going up the hill and telemarking to ski down steep downhills.
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It is always important to ski with a buddy for safety reasons. It is also more fun.
  
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===Classical===
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<!--T:56-->
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To move when on level ground or uphill whilst using the classical style, cross-country skiers slide one ski forward and reach with the arm on the other side to implant the pole in the snow in front of them, then pull on the pole to accelerate themselves along.  They then lift the pole out of the snow and repeat the process with the other side of the body, hopefully maintaining momentum and achieving a smooth, energy-saving rhythm. 
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When reaching a downhill slope, they are able to coast down in a similar manner to [[downhill skiing]], or may use [[Telemark]] technique - see below. 
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The classical style is often performed on prepared trails (pistes) that have pairs of parallel grooves cut into the snow, one for each ski, and consequently a special long, narrow and light ski is usually used. The skis used either have a ''fish-scale'' underside, or [[ski wax]] is applied to the central section in the centre of the ski, so that when the skier kicks the ski into the snow it grips, allowing the skier to move forward.
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When skiing away from prepared trails, a much wider ski is usually used.  When used by the local population of flat regions, such as parts of [[Finland]], the skis may also be much longer, sometimes exceeding 3 or 4 m (yards) in length.
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==References== <!--T:19-->
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===Freestyle technique===
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Freestyle technique, aka skating, involves the skier pushing one ski outward with the [[ski]] angled, so that the inner edge of the ski is driven against the snow, much like an [[ice skating|ice skater]]. It is also important to balance on one ski to be efficient. Skis tend to be shorter than those used in classical technique, and poles longer. There is also no fish scale or sticky wax applied and no kick area. There are various combinations of ski and pole movements to suit the terrain and conditions.  The technique is only suitable for use on prepared trails (pistes) or those with firm, smooth snow. In some places where the snow melts slightly at the beginning of spring a person can ski on the crust.
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{{CloseHonorPage}}
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−
===Telemark===
 
−
''See the main article [[Telemark skiing]] for details''.
 
−
 
 
−
The Telemark technique is particularly suited to [[backcountry skiing]] (off piste cross-country skiing).  While first and foremost it is a technique for descending, for those with dedicated equipment it is effectively a separate branch of skiing that takes place in the backcountry (off piste).
 
−
 
 
−
==See also==  
 
−
*[[Skiing|Skiing and Skiing Topics]]
 
−
*[[Ski touring]]
 
−
 
 
−
==External links==
 
−
*[http://www.fis-ski.com/uk/disciplines/cross-country.html FIS-Ski cross-country skiing portal] &ndash; Featuring the latest results, ongoing and upcoming events, and World Cup standings
 
−
*[http://www.swixschool.no/ SWIX school] &ndash; Ski wax and ski pole producer SWIX's guide to ski waxing
 
−
 
 
−
[[Category:Cross-country skiing|*]]
 
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[[ca:Esquí de fons]]
 
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[[de:Skilanglauf]]
 
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[[es:Esquí de fondo o nórdico]]
 
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[[et:Murdmaasuusatamine]]
 
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[[fr:Ski de fond]]
 
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[[it:Sci di fondo]]
 
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[[ja:&#12463;&#12525;&#12473;&#12459;&#12531;&#12488;&#12522;&#12540;&#12473;&#12461;&#12540;]]
 
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[[nl:Langlaufen]]
 
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[[nb:Langrenn]]
 
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[[nn:Langrenn]]
 
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[[sv:Längdåkning]]
 

Latest revision as of 22:59, 18 July 2022

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Skiing - Cross Country

Skill Level

2

Year

1986

Version

25.11.2024

Approval authority

General Conference

Skiing Cross Country AY Honor.png
Skiing - Cross Country
Recreation
Skill Level
123
Approval authority
General Conference
Year of Introduction
1986
See also
Recreation Master Award


1

List and describe the principle characteristics, qualities, and sizing of the following cross-country skiing equipment:


1a

Skis (both waxable and unwaxable)


The skis are long and thin, to distribute the weight of the skier and allow the skier to move quickly. Typical ski dimensions are 2 meters in length, about 5 centimeters in width and one to four centimeters in thickness at different stations along the length of the ski. Depending on the ski design and purpose, they are fit to the skier based on height and weight. Cross country skis are sometimes informally known as "skinny skis" because of their thinness compared to alpine skis.

In recent years, waxless skis have carved a niche in the market among casual skiers. Waxless skis have a fish scale, cross-hatched or ridged pattern in the kick zone to provide grip. A waxless ski is inferior to a finely tuned waxed ski, but does not require the sometimes time-consuming and sometimes costly selection and application of kick wax or klister and will work between temperatures, an important advantage in areas with many sun/shadow boundaries. Some skiers apply a layer of glide wax to keep them sliding smoothly and protecting the surface from dirt and ice build-up. There are specialty liquid wax products on the market manufactured for waxless skis, though standard glide wax can also be used on the tips and tails of the ski.

Waxless skis are better suited to recreational skiers who simply want to get out on the trail with minimal time spent on maintenance, as they generally produce too much drag for competitive skiers.

Waxless skis are sometimes used by Nordic racers during variable ski conditions such as temperatures over freezing. In fact, some Nordic ski racers using waxless skis have beaten racers who used waxable skis due to the variable and changing conditions.


1b

Bindings


There are three primary groups of binding systems used in modern cross-country skiing:

  • NNN (New Nordic Norm) – including the new R4 NIS variant
  • SNS (Salomon Nordic System) Profil
  • SNS Pilot

Older styled three-pin bindings (Nordic Norm), with or without cables, are still used by backcountry and Telemarking enthusiasts.

Further variants to NNN and SNS are "BC" (back-country) standards, where the toe hold in the binding is wider and the bar in the boot's toe is longer and thicker in order to give further lateral rigidity. This added strength and rigidity is especially important with the stiffer boots and heavier skis used in backcountry skiing.

The existing variety of binding systems, none of which are compatible with the other, has long since been a source of frustration for skiers ever since manufacturers diverged from the almost universal three-pin standard. Whereas downhill skiing has a common binding system allowing any boot to work with any binding short of the dynafit-system, modern cross-country skiers must match the skis' binding system to the boot type. When it is time to change the boot, the skier must either be limited to boots of the same binding system or also change the skis' binding.

New Nordic Norm

Rottefella developed the New Nordic Norm (NNN) binding, and licenses it to Rossignol, Madshus, Atomic, and, beginning in 2007, Fischer. } These bindings have subtypes, such as the NNN-BC for backcountry use, the R3 Skate, the R3 Classic, and the R4 NIS (Nordic Integrated System). The NIS system requires skis that have a permanently bonded plate that the binding slides onto. This allows for the skier to mount their own bindings without needing to screw into the ski. By doing this the skier can easily tune the position of the binding relative to the center of gravity of the ski, said to be useful in different snow conditions. NNN boots are made by Alpina Sports, Madshus, Rossignol and beginning in 2007, Fischer. The R3 and R4 are generally the choice for World Cup Racers using NNN. } These are distinguished from the SNS (Salomon and Atomic) binding in that all NNN bindings have two longitudinal ridges that stick out from the bottom of the binding that mate with corresponding slots in NNN boots. There is much debate over which is the superior binding system: SNS or NNN. Overall, the differences between the NNN and SNS binding systems are minuscule to the average skier; the choice should come down to which binding fits with the boot that happens to fit a given skier.

The R4 NIS binding, made by Rottefella and Rossignol, is the newest variant of the NNN binding. These bindings are compatible with any NNN boot, but can only be used on skis that come with the permanently bonded plate, presently made only by Rossignol, Madshus, and Fischer. The NIS binding made its debut to the general public in 2005.

Salomon Nordic System Profil

SNS binding and ski boots, both of the Salomon brand.

Salomon Nordic System (SNS) bindings, made by Salomon and Atomic, however, have their advantages too. Boots that are compatible with the SNS Profil system are made by Salomon, Atomic, Adidas, and Hartjes. SNS Profil bindings are used for both Skating and Classic. As opposed to the SNS Pilot's two axes, these boots have only one axis at the front of the sole. Pilots are used by many different racers on the World Cup Circuit. Profil bindings are the standard binding for SNS users, its only competition being the SNS Pilot system. Profil comes in "Equipe" models for racing, "Active" for recreational racing/combination, Auto Touring, and Back Country. Fischer was for many years synonymous with SNS as well, but switched to the more widely used NNN for the 2007/2008 season and beyond.

Salomon Nordic System Pilot

SNS Pilot bindings, compatible with Salomon, Atomic, Adidas and Hartjes boots. As of the 2006/2007 season, Atomic will also have SNS pilot on their boots. The idea for these bindings came from Bjørn Dæhlie. Pilots are used mostly by elite skiers at the Collegiate/Olympians/World Cup/National level, although it is common to find High School/Citizen Racers with these bindings and their counterpart boots. Pilots are more expensive than Profils at about 100 U.S. dollars for a pair, and have two completely different designs for skate skiing and classical skiing. In Pilot boots, two axes (metal bars), one positioned about 1" (2.5 cm) behind the other, click into two different slots in the Pilot binding. Profil boots only have one axis and therefore cannot fit into Pilot bindings. However, Pilot boots can fit into most Profil bindings, due to a small space behind the front of the boot for the other axis. Pilot Skate bindings are superior to Profil due to the two latches reducing ski motion in the air. The Pilot Classic (released at the end of the 2005-2006 season) doesn't have the bumper found on all NNN and SNS Profil bindings. These new boots and bindings provide a superior subtle kick through a spring loaded back slot for the back axis. Unlike the rubber bumpers, this spring has adjustable tension that can be changed in different snow conditions. Fischer has now started producing their new boots with the NNN system.


1c

Shoes


Shoes (boots) are covered in the Bindings section above.


1d

Poles


Like alpine skiing, cross-country skiers carry two poles, usually made of aluminium or fiberglass. More expensive poles are made of graphite or carbon fiber or some other strong but lightweight material. Poles have a spike at the end to provide a fixed pivot when the pole penetrates through to a hard surface, and a plastic web or disc (called the basket), to provide extra purchase in snow and to ensure the pole doesn't sink too deeply.



2

Describe and demonstrate how the above gear would be prepared for use and cared for both on the field and during the off season.




3

What consideration should be made when selecting clothing to be worn while cross-country skiing? What features would you look for when selecting a pack for cross-country ski touring?



4

Demonstrate properly on skis the following travel techniques:


4a

Flat striding with good kick, purchase, and form



4b

Single poling, change-up, and double poling



4c

Side stepping up and down slopes



4d

Herringbone slope climbing



4e

Traverse-side stepping up slope with kick turns



4f

Straight up slope climbing



4g

Straight downhill running under control, 20 degree slope (schuss)



4h

Moving step turning down slope



4i

Snow plowing for slowing speed and stopping



4j

Sitback stopping




5

Explain the purpose of waxing. Briefly explain the need for different waxes for different snow types and temperatures.



6

Explain basic safety precautions to follow in cross-country skiing.



7

Know and explain the official National Ski rules for conduct in cross-country skiing


Always practice the Leave No Trace 7 Principles.

1) Plan ahead and prepare. 2) Travel and camp on durable surfaces. 3) Dispose of waste properly. 4) Leave what you find. 5) Minimize campfire impacts (be careful with fire). 6) Respect wildlife. 7) Be considerate of other visitors. © 1999 by the Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor Ethics: www.LNT.org.


8

Demonstrate skiing ability by doing the following:


8a

Take three separate three-mile trail tours with another individual. If possible, have varying snow conditions.


It is always important to ski with a buddy for safety reasons. It is also more fun.


8b

Take a ten-mile tour over varying terrain.



8c

During all tours carry necessary gear (safely) and wear proper clothing for conditions demonstrating ability to maintain proper body temperature, dryness, and condition.





References

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