Difference between revisions of "AY Honors/Fossils/Answer Key"

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'''Collecting fossils''' for yourself can be a very relaxing and often rewarding [[hobby]]. There are no special rules about where one may find [[fossil]]s, and you can find fossils in many places where [[sedimentary rock]]s are exposed, such as [[clay]]s, [[shale]]s, [[limestone]]s, and [[sandstone]]s. Only certain sedimentary [[Rock (geology)|rock]]s will yield fossils, and they are often concentrated along particular bedding planes within the rocks.
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<!-- 1. Make a collection of at least ten different kinds of fossils and label each with its name and geographic location. -->
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Fossils are found in many places where sedimentary rocks, such as claystones, shales, limestones, and sandstones, are exposed. Only certain sedimentary rocks harbored the appropriate environmental conditions to preserve and yield fossils, which are often concentrated along particular bedding planes within the rocks.
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===Finding Fossils=== <!--T:41-->
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Fossils are generally found in sedimentary rock with differentiated strata representing a succession of deposited material.
  
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== Finding fossils ==
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The occurrence of fossil bearing material depends on environmental factors before and after the time of preservation. After death, the first preserving factor is a rapid burial in water bodies or terrestrial sediment which would help in preserving the specimen. These rocks types are usually termed clastic rock, and are further subdivided into fine, medium and coarse grained material. While fossil's can be found in all grain typed, more detailed specimens are found in the fine grained material. A second type of burial is the non-clastic rock, form where the rock is made up of the precipitation of compacted fossil material, types of rock include limestone and coal. The third fossil bearing material is the evaporates, which precipitate out of concentrated dissolved salts to form nodular deposits, examples include rock salt and phosphate concentrations. The evaporates are usually associated with gastropod, algae, vertebrate, and trace fossils.
  
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Fossils are not to be found in areas of [[igneous rock]] (except in some beds between lava flows). In rocks which have undergoone [[metamorphism]], they are usually so distorted that they are difficult to recognize or have been destroyed completely.
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Areas where sedimentary rocks are being eroded include exposed Mountainous areas, river banks and beds and engineering features like quarries and road cuts. Generally in appearance, a fossil will be either a different color to the surrounding rock, because of the different mineral content, will have a defining shape and texture or a combination of both. Dried up natural lake beads and caves in the form of pitfall traps also has an occurrence of a recent fossil fauna for the locality as is the case with Cuddie Springs and Naracoorte Caves in Australia.
  
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Establishing the age and type of the rocks in your area with the aid of a [[Geology|geological]] map (usually available from your local state or national geological survey) will provide you with an idea as to what types of fossils to expect. Most libraries should have local geological guide books, but, a word of caution: they may be out-of-date. Many hours have often been spent trying to locate a [[Quarry|quarry]] that has since been filled in.
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Fossils are not to be found in areas of igneous rock (except in some beds between lava flows). In rocks which have undergone metamorphism, they are usually so distorted that they are difficult to recognize or have been destroyed completely.
  
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There are a large number of well known fossil collecting localities worldwide, and at some of these classic localities fossils have been recovered for a long time. Many such sites are recorded in geological guide books and other sources of literature. At such localities fossils are almost sure to be found, but one should remember that generations of fossil collectors have collected there before.
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Artificial exposures, such as road cuttings or quarries, can often be good collecting spots, along with continually eroding river or coastal exposures. Coal mining operations often yield excellent fossil plants, but the best ones are to be found not in the coal itself but in the associated sedimentary rock deposits called ''coal measures''.
  
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A visit to your local [[museum]] is often useful too. However, one should take into account that many of the inspiring specimens in museum collections may have been collected a long time ago, often when the site was in prime condition.
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In hilly regions the best sections are often those exposed at the sides of streams that have cut into the bedrock.
  
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You may also consider joining a rock and [[mineral]] club or [[natural history]] society. Up-to-date information from other collectors is usually the best, and often such clubs and societies have access to private collecting sites that would not otherwise be accessible. Supervised parties are usually allowed to collect fossils in quarries, whereas individuals may be discouraged from doing so. The staff at operating quarries will often know where the best spots for collecting fossils are.
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Wave washed sea cliffs and foreshore exposures are often good places to search for fossils, but always be aware of the state of the tides in the area. Never take chances by climbing high cliffs of crumbling rock or clay (many have died attempting it).
  
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Artificial exposures, such as road cuttings or quarries, can often be good collecting spots, along with continually eroding river or coastal exposures. [[Coal mining]] operations often yield excellent fossil [[plant]]s, but the best ones are to be found not in the [[coal]] itself but in the associated sedimentary rock deposits called [[coal measures]].
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Exposures of softer rocks, such as clays and sands, can be good collecting spots. However inland sections tend to degrade rapidly, becoming overgrown, and are lost forever.
  
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In hilly regions the best sections are often those exposed at the sides of streams that have cut into the [[bedrock]].
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===Collecting Ethics=== <!--T:9-->
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To collect fossils, there are various legal realities that must be observed. Permission should be sought before collection begins on private land.
  
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Wave washed sea cliffs and foreshore exposures are often good places to search for fossils, but always be aware of the state of the [[tide]]s in the area. Never take chances by climbing high cliffs of crumbling rock.
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Hammering the rocks in national parks and other areas of natural beauty is often discouraged and in most cases is illegal.
  
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Exposures of softer rocks, such as clays and [[sand]]s, can be good collecting spots. However inland sections tend to degrade rapidly, becoming overgrown, and are lost forever.
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===Equipment=== <!--T:11-->
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It is important to have the right kind of field equipment when looking for fossils, and safety should always be an important concern.
  
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== Collecting ethics ==
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A hard hat is essential protection from loose stones that may be dislodged from cliffs above, but will not protect the wearer from larger falling rocks. Hard hats are normally a requirement in operational quarries.
  
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Wherever you decide to collect fossils you should always seek permission from the land owner or authorities first. Thoughtless or unreasonable behavior on the part of one collector may mean that access to a particular site in the future is refused to others. Irresponsible behavior while out collecting may also put yourself and others at risk.
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Safety goggles and protective gloves are also essential, as rocks can be sharp and dangerous; safety goggles will protect eyes from chips produced while hammering, and gloves protect the hands.
  
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Hammering the rocks in [[national parks]] and other areas of natural beauty is often discouraged and in most cases is illegal, so '''please be considerate'''. In this way fossils will still be there for future generations to appreciate.
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<!--T:14-->
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A collector need dress appropriately for collecting trips, taking into account the climate and terrain of the area. Sturdy footwear, such as walking or hiking boots with steel toes, are recommended. A hammer, chisel and wrapping materials are the basic equipment required for fossil collecting, along with a stout rucksack or canvas bag for carrying equipment and fossil finds. The steel of many ordinary hammers is too soft for use on most type of rock. The steel may splinter, and the flying fragments cause injury to the person using the hammer, or others in the vicinity. The hammer should always strike away from the body. The head of a geological hammer or rock pick is made from specially hardened steel designed for use on rocks. The head is either firmly attached to a wooden shaft, or the hammer have the head and the shaft formed from one piece of steel. The head may have any combination of a square face, a tapered point, or a straight chisel edge. The point of such picks are not meant for striking rock directly, but for tapping rock (such as shale) open along planes and for prying: the hammer end is used for striking.
  
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== Field collecting ==
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A convenient weight for a general purpose geological hammer or rock pick is around 1 kg (2 to 3 pounds). For breaking very hard rocks one may need a hammer of between 3 and 6.5 kg (7 and 14 pounds) in weight, with a correspondingly longer and thicker shaft. A hammer that is too heavy is tiring to use and results in unsafe work.
  
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Do not hammer at rock outcrops aimlessly, and never leave rock fragments scattered over fields or roads. The irresponsible destruction of an outcrop in search of one or two fossils is not welcomed. Fossils should be collected sparingly, and preferably without the use of a hammer.
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Often the best fossils are those which have been [[Weathering|weathered]] out of the rock over a long period of time. They may be visible on the surface of the rock, or among the loose scree at the foot of an outcrop. Searching for fossils on the ground is largely a matter of patience and a keen eye.
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It is always better to leave a fossil in the field rather than try to dig it out in a hurry using the wrong tools, you could damage or destroy a valuable scientific find. Collecting is often a matter of personal judgment; consider the scientific value of the fossil and whether it would otherwise be damaged or destroyed by [[erosion]]. Would it be better to collect the specimen now, or return at a later time with the appropriate tools? If you think that the removal of the specimen is essential, then do it. Otherwise, contact an authority at a local university or club that can help you.
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{| class="toccolours" style="margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"
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|-
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! style="background:rgb(154,217,229);" colspan="3" | Phanerozoic eon
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|-
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! style="background:rgb(153,192,141);" | Paleozoic era
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! style="background:rgb(103,197,202);" | Mesozoic era
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! style="background:rgb(250,253,1);" | Cenozoic era
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|}
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[[File:Shell Limestone.jpg|thumb|200px|Shell Limestone]]
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== Equipment ==
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<!-- 3. Visit a museum where fossils are on display and make a written or oral report of your trip. -->
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[[File:Tyrannosaurus rex Stan.jpg|thumb|300px|Tyranasaurus rex]]
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Most museums of natural history will have a fossil collection, and even small museums are likely to have a few. If you do not know of such a museum in your area, the Internet is your friend. Try searching for "fossil," "museum," and the name of your locality. If you are still unsure, get a list of local museums and call them. They will be happy to tell you if they have fossils on display, and if they do not, they may be able to direct you to a museum that does. Also not all museums are called a museum. The T Rex and some other fossils shown here were photographed at Science World in Vancouver.
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After the visit, have your Pathfinders either write their reports or present one orally. This would be a great topic for worship during your club's opening exercises, or during a campout.
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{{clear}}
  
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It is important to have the right kind of field equipment when looking for fossils, and safety should always be your primary concern.
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A [[hard hat]] is essential to protect you from loose stones which may be dislodged from cliffs above, but remember that this will not protect you from larger falling rocks. Hard hats are normally a requirement in operating quarries.
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Safety goggles and protective gloves are also essential. Rocks can be sharp and dangerous, safety goggles will protect your eyes from chips while hammering, and gloves will protect your hands.
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<!-- 4. Describe the process of the proper removal of delicate specimens. Tell how a skeleton of a dinosaur or other gigantic fossil would be removed. Why should beginners not remove such specimens? What should be done by the beginner when he finds what is obviously a valuable fossil? -->
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You should always dress appropriately for collecting trips, taking into account the climate and terrain of the area. Sturdy footwear, such as walking or hiking boots, are usually a must. In general, wear old clothes because you will almost certainly get dirty. A hand-lens is also important as it will enable you to recognize fine details in both the rocks and fossils they contain.
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===Removal of delicate specimens=== <!--T:68-->
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For extracting fossils from harder rocks, a sturdy mallet and cold steel chisels may also be required. Usually one needs a range of chisels in size from small ones with a sharp edge of about 1 cm (quarter of an inch), to much larger and heavier chisels. A broad-bladed chisel is often very useful for splitting rocks along their bedding plane.
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A hammer, chisel and wrapping materials are the basic equipment required for fossil collecting, along with a stout rucksack or canvas bag for carrying your equipment and your fossil finds.
 
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Remember that the [[steel]] of many ordinary hammers are too soft for use on most type of rock. The steel may splinter and the flying fragments may cause injury, not only to the person using the hammer, but to his or her companions as well. Always strike with the hammer away from the body.
 
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Use a good quality geological hammer or rock pick, such as those manufactured by the Estwing Manufacturing Co, Inc. of [[Rockford, Illinois]], [[USA]], which is a carefully designed tool and is useful for most types of rock.
 
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The head of a geological hammer or rock pick is made from specially hardened steel designed for use on rocks. The head is either firmly attached to a wooden shaft, or the hammer may be of the type where the head and the shaft are cast from one piece of steel. The head has a square face at one end, while the other end either tapers to a point of has a straight chisel edge. The point of such picks are not meant for striking rock directly, but for tapping rock (such as shale) open along planes and for prying. The hammer end is meant for striking.
 
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In dry climates shrinkage can be a problem with hammers which have a wooden shaft, the wood may shrink so that the head becomes loose.
 
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A convenient weight for a general purpose geological hammer or rock pick is around 1 kg (2 to 3 pounds). For breaking very hard rocks one may need a hammer of between 3 and 6.5 kg (7 and 14 pounds) in weight, with a correspondingly longer and thicker shaft.
 
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For extracting fossils from harder rocks, a sturdy [[mallet]] and cold steel chisels may also be required. Usually one needs a range of chisels in size from small ones with a sharp edge of about 1 cm (quarter of an inch), to much larger and heavier chisels. A broad-bladed chisel is often very useful for splitting rocks along their bedding plane.
 
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Knowing the type of rocks on which one will be working is useful so that one can select the appropriate tools and not have to carry any unnecessary weight.
 
  
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Different types of rocks will break differently and a beginner should put in a little practice, getting the feel for a particular type of rock before he or she starts hammering out fossils. It is all too easy to ruin a specimen with one ill-placed blow of a hammer.
 
Different types of rocks will break differently and a beginner should put in a little practice, getting the feel for a particular type of rock before he or she starts hammering out fossils. It is all too easy to ruin a specimen with one ill-placed blow of a hammer.
  
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Extracting a specimen that is embedded in solid rock may prove to be a long and difficult process. Before attempting to extract a specimen, the collector should make sure that it is feasible to remove it without destroying or damaging it. Be sure to leave sufficient rock beneath the specimen to protect it from fracturing; excess matrix can always be trimmed once you get the specimen home.
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Extracting a specimen that is embedded in solid rock may prove to be a long and difficult process. Before attempting to extract a specimen, the collector should make sure that it is feasible to remove it without destroying or damaging it. Leaving sufficient rock beneath the specimen to protect it from fracturing; excess matrix can be trimmed at a later time.
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For soft [[sediment]]s and unconsolidated deposits, such as sands, [[silt]]s and clays, a spade and a flat-bladed [[trowel]] or stout bladed [[knife]] may be the most useful tools for clearing the area around a fossil. [[Brush]]es are also useful for removing loose sediment from around fossils. Also, '''a word of caution''': whenever grinding or chipping rock beware that the rock dust created can be very harmful to the [[lung]]s. Always take appropriate measures, such as using a mask or respirator, when doing anything with rocks that create dust.
 
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Use a sieve to separate fossils from sands and [[gravel]]s. Usually a smaller mesh is required in order to avoid losing small fossils. One practical difficulty with using sieves in the field is that they easily become clogged, especially when the material sieved has a high moisture content. However, under dry weather conditions the more durable fossils, such a teeth and bones, can be quickly and easily sieved out of loose sands. Remember that shaking the sieve is always liable to damage or destroy fragile fossils.
 
  
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If there is water available, such as on a beach or next to a stream, the material containing the fossils can be sieved wet and the matrix gradually washed away. Wet sieving is a technique that is frequently used for the collection of small [[mammal]]ian fossils, and by using this technique even the smallest specimens may be recovered. Any fossils you will thus obtain create a more balanced representation of the fossils present at that particular locality. Alternatively a block of matrix with the fossils inside may be dug out and taken home for treatment indoors. To do this use a flat-bladed trowel, or stout bladed knife, and simply carve away the surrounding sediment. Once free, carefully wrap the matrix block containing the specimen before taking it home.
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For soft sediments and unconsolidated deposits, such as sands, silts and clays, a spade and a flat-bladed trowel or stout bladed knife may be the most useful tools for clearing the area around a fossil. Brushes are also useful for removing loose sediment from around fossils.
  
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Before setting out on an expedition, ask other collectors who are familiar with the area where you intend to collect exactly what tools are needed.
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A sieve is used to separate fossils from sands and gravels. A smaller mesh is required in order to avoid losing small fossils. One practical difficulty with using sieves in the field is that they easily become clogged, especially when the material sieved has a high moisture content. However, under dry weather conditions the more durable fossils, such as teeth and bones, can be quickly and easily sieved out of loose sands. Shaking the sieve is always liable to damage or destroy fragile fossils.
  
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== Preservation and documentation ==
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If there is water available, such as on a beach or next to a stream, the material containing the fossils can be sieved wet and the matrix gradually washed away. Wet sieving is a technique that is frequently used for the collection of small mammalian fossils, and by using this technique even the smallest specimens may be recovered.
  
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Always record field notes, such as the locality, types of rock, and fossils seen in a sturdy notebook using waterproof ink. A long tape measure is useful to record the levels of the beds in which you find fossils, and a camera may also be useful for taking photographs of fossils ''in situ''. Detailed field notes are an essential part of your records, both from the point of view of keeping an accurate account of your collecting activities, and as an indispensable aid in the subsequent identification of your finds. Your field notes may in time be the only reference to a collecting area that later becomes destroyed by erosion or by the spread of urban areas. If often helps to make sketches of the site with, particularly if the fossils are found in certain distinct bands or horizons within the rocks. Accurate notes will enable you to readily identify such horizons on your return trips.
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===Removing gigantic fossils=== <!--T:26-->
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Occasionally, large fragile specimens may need to be surrounded and supported using a jacket of plaster before their removal from the rock: This protects the fossil, protecting it from shattering. If a fossil is to be left in situ, a cast may be produced, using plaster of paris or latex - while not preserving every detail, such a cast is inexpensive, easier to transport, causes less damage to the environment, and leaves the fossil in place for others to enjoy. Subtle fossils which are preserved solely as impressions in sandy layers, such as the Ediacaran fossils, are usually sampled by means of a cast, which shows up detail more clearly than the rock itself.
  
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Having collected fossils it is essential that they are adequately protected from damage while they are being transported home. Each fossil or piece of rock containing a fossil should be carefully wrapped. Here newspaper, paper towels, sticky tape, polythene bags and an assortment of small boxes or tins will all prove to be useful.
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===Valuable fossils=== <!--T:27-->
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If you find an obviously valuable fossil, you should contact a professional. It is too easy to ruin a fossil by attempting to remove it yourself. Leave the extraction in the hands of an experienced collector. If you find such a fossil on public land, contact the authority responsible for the land. The fossil belongs to them, and they have the right to decide what to do with it. To find a professional, contact a museum or a local university. If they do not have one on staff, they will be able to refer you to one.
  
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The more fragile specimens will need the greatest protection, such as packing them in a tin or box lined with a soft material such as [[cotton]] wool.
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<!-- 5. Explain the difference in the account scientists give for the presence of fossils as related by evolutionists and creationists. -->
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Evolutionists and creationists both agree that fossils are formed when a creature is quickly buried in sediment. They disagree on how long ago this happened. Evolutionists believe most fossils were made millions of years ago. Creationists believe that nearly all fossils were made during Noah's flood less than 10,000 years ago.
  
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All specimens collected should be labeled in the field with the details of the locality where they were found. The easiest and safest way to do this is to write the details in your field notebook along with a number for each specimen, a corresponding number can then be written on the wrapping used for each specimen or on a ticket or scrap of paper included with the wrapping.
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<!-- 6. From the Bible and writings of Ellen G. White cite statements to explain the origin of the following: <br>a. Coal <br>b. Petroleum <br>c. Fossils <br>d. Limestone -->
  
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If you do not label the specimens as they are collected and wrapped there is a distinct danger that errors will be made in the localities from which the fossils were collected, especially if they are not unpacked for some time after they were collected. The value of any fossil that does not have accurate locality details is greatly reduced.
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!From Patriarchs and Prophets, pp 107, 108
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|''Everywhere were strewn the dead bodies of men and beasts. The Lord would not permit these to remain to decompose and pollute the air, therefore He made of the earth a vast burial ground. A violent wind which was caused to blow for the purpose of drying up the waters, moved them with great force, in some instances even carrying away the tops of the mountains and heaping up trees, rocks, and earth above the bodies of the dead.''
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''At this time immense forests were buried. These have since been changed to coal, forming the extensive coal beds that now exist, and also yielding large quantities of oil. The coal and oil frequently ignite and burn beneath the surface of the earth. Thus rocks are heated, limestone is burned, and iron ore melted.''
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Maps and a [[compass]]/clinometer or [[GPS]] receiver will assist you in finding fossil locations and assist you in recording your field notes.
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The Bible itself offers no explicit explanation of coal, petroleum, fossils, or limestone, though it does contain the story of Noah's flood (see Genesis chapters 6-9). In this account, the whole earth is covered by water, and all life, except those in the ark, is lost. The Biblical account of creation rejects the notion of hundred of millions of years of evolution, stating with clarity that God created the world in six days. In Genesis chapter 5, the Bible also provides genealogies of the Patriarchs, including their ages when they had children and when they died. From this, and from other historical records, the Bible sets the age of the Earth at about 6000 years.
  
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Occasionally, large fragile specimens may need to be surrounded and supported using a jacket of [[plaster]] before their removal from the rock. This will protect the fossil and prevent it from shattering. In this case clean the fossil and expose as much of it as possible. Then cover the exposed surface with a separator (wet paper of plastic film is suitable), followed by layers of plaster bandage. Once the plaster has hardened you can lift the fossil out of the surrounding rock, and then repeat the plastering process on the underside of the specimen.
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==References== <!--T:31-->
  
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==See also==
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* [[Rockhounding]]
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There are many fine book written from a creationist perspective. Some examples:
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* [[Mary Anning]]
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*[http://tinyurl.com/beforeflood Before the Flood] (links to book on Amazon)
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*[http://tinyurl.com/birthiceage Noah's Flood-Birth of the Ice Age] (links to book on Amazon)
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*[http://tinyurl.com/fosrockdinos Rocks, Fossils and Dinosaurs] (available as free digital book)
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*[http://tinyurl.com/creatgeo Creation Geology: A Study Guide to Fossils, Formations, and the Flood.] (links to book Amazon)
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*[http://www.adventistbookcenter.com/review/product/list/id/3562/ Evidences The Records and The Flood] DVD distributed by Adventist Book Centers.
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[[Category:AY Honors/noindex{{GetLangSuffix}}|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]
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[[Category:Collecting]]
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Latest revision as of 14:49, 2 January 2023

Other languages:
English • ‎español
Fossils

Skill Level

2

Year

1944

Version

01.06.2024

Approval authority

North American Division

Fossils AY Honor.png
Fossils
Nature
Skill Level
123
Approval authority
North American Division
Year of Introduction
1944
See also
Conservation Master Award
Creationism - Advanced
Explorer


1

Make a collection of at least ten different kinds of fossils and label each with its name and geographic location.


Fossils are found in many places where sedimentary rocks, such as claystones, shales, limestones, and sandstones, are exposed. Only certain sedimentary rocks harbored the appropriate environmental conditions to preserve and yield fossils, which are often concentrated along particular bedding planes within the rocks.

Finding Fossils

Fossils are generally found in sedimentary rock with differentiated strata representing a succession of deposited material.

The occurrence of fossil bearing material depends on environmental factors before and after the time of preservation. After death, the first preserving factor is a rapid burial in water bodies or terrestrial sediment which would help in preserving the specimen. These rocks types are usually termed clastic rock, and are further subdivided into fine, medium and coarse grained material. While fossil's can be found in all grain typed, more detailed specimens are found in the fine grained material. A second type of burial is the non-clastic rock, form where the rock is made up of the precipitation of compacted fossil material, types of rock include limestone and coal. The third fossil bearing material is the evaporates, which precipitate out of concentrated dissolved salts to form nodular deposits, examples include rock salt and phosphate concentrations. The evaporates are usually associated with gastropod, algae, vertebrate, and trace fossils.

Areas where sedimentary rocks are being eroded include exposed Mountainous areas, river banks and beds and engineering features like quarries and road cuts. Generally in appearance, a fossil will be either a different color to the surrounding rock, because of the different mineral content, will have a defining shape and texture or a combination of both. Dried up natural lake beads and caves in the form of pitfall traps also has an occurrence of a recent fossil fauna for the locality as is the case with Cuddie Springs and Naracoorte Caves in Australia.

Fossils are not to be found in areas of igneous rock (except in some beds between lava flows). In rocks which have undergone metamorphism, they are usually so distorted that they are difficult to recognize or have been destroyed completely.

Artificial exposures, such as road cuttings or quarries, can often be good collecting spots, along with continually eroding river or coastal exposures. Coal mining operations often yield excellent fossil plants, but the best ones are to be found not in the coal itself but in the associated sedimentary rock deposits called coal measures.

In hilly regions the best sections are often those exposed at the sides of streams that have cut into the bedrock.

Wave washed sea cliffs and foreshore exposures are often good places to search for fossils, but always be aware of the state of the tides in the area. Never take chances by climbing high cliffs of crumbling rock or clay (many have died attempting it).

Exposures of softer rocks, such as clays and sands, can be good collecting spots. However inland sections tend to degrade rapidly, becoming overgrown, and are lost forever.

Collecting Ethics

To collect fossils, there are various legal realities that must be observed. Permission should be sought before collection begins on private land.

Hammering the rocks in national parks and other areas of natural beauty is often discouraged and in most cases is illegal.

Equipment

It is important to have the right kind of field equipment when looking for fossils, and safety should always be an important concern.

A hard hat is essential protection from loose stones that may be dislodged from cliffs above, but will not protect the wearer from larger falling rocks. Hard hats are normally a requirement in operational quarries.

Safety goggles and protective gloves are also essential, as rocks can be sharp and dangerous; safety goggles will protect eyes from chips produced while hammering, and gloves protect the hands.

A collector need dress appropriately for collecting trips, taking into account the climate and terrain of the area. Sturdy footwear, such as walking or hiking boots with steel toes, are recommended. A hammer, chisel and wrapping materials are the basic equipment required for fossil collecting, along with a stout rucksack or canvas bag for carrying equipment and fossil finds. The steel of many ordinary hammers is too soft for use on most type of rock. The steel may splinter, and the flying fragments cause injury to the person using the hammer, or others in the vicinity. The hammer should always strike away from the body. The head of a geological hammer or rock pick is made from specially hardened steel designed for use on rocks. The head is either firmly attached to a wooden shaft, or the hammer have the head and the shaft formed from one piece of steel. The head may have any combination of a square face, a tapered point, or a straight chisel edge. The point of such picks are not meant for striking rock directly, but for tapping rock (such as shale) open along planes and for prying: the hammer end is used for striking.

A convenient weight for a general purpose geological hammer or rock pick is around 1 kg (2 to 3 pounds). For breaking very hard rocks one may need a hammer of between 3 and 6.5 kg (7 and 14 pounds) in weight, with a correspondingly longer and thicker shaft. A hammer that is too heavy is tiring to use and results in unsafe work.


2

Have a brief definition of each of the following in your notebook:


2a

Geology



2b

Fossils



2c

Catastrophism



2d

Paleontology



2e

Graptolite



2f

Trilobite



2g

Dinosaur



2h

Mammoth



2i

Mastodon



2j

Crinoid



2k

Lingula



2l

Calamite



2m

Foraminifera



2n

Radiolaria



2o

Paleozoic


Phanerozoic eon
Paleozoic era Mesozoic era Cenozoic era


2p

Mesozoic



2q

Cenozoic



2r

Pleistocene



2s

Paleobotany



2t

Pelecypod


Shell Limestone


2u

Brachiopod




3

Visit a museum where fossils are on display and make a written or oral report of your trip.


Tyranasaurus rex

Most museums of natural history will have a fossil collection, and even small museums are likely to have a few. If you do not know of such a museum in your area, the Internet is your friend. Try searching for "fossil," "museum," and the name of your locality. If you are still unsure, get a list of local museums and call them. They will be happy to tell you if they have fossils on display, and if they do not, they may be able to direct you to a museum that does. Also not all museums are called a museum. The T Rex and some other fossils shown here were photographed at Science World in Vancouver. After the visit, have your Pathfinders either write their reports or present one orally. This would be a great topic for worship during your club's opening exercises, or during a campout.


4

Describe the process of the proper removal of delicate specimens. Tell how a skeleton of a dinosaur or other gigantic fossil would be removed. Why should beginners not remove such specimens? What should be done by the beginner when he finds what is obviously a valuable fossil?


Removal of delicate specimens

For extracting fossils from harder rocks, a sturdy mallet and cold steel chisels may also be required. Usually one needs a range of chisels in size from small ones with a sharp edge of about 1 cm (quarter of an inch), to much larger and heavier chisels. A broad-bladed chisel is often very useful for splitting rocks along their bedding plane.

Different types of rocks will break differently and a beginner should put in a little practice, getting the feel for a particular type of rock before he or she starts hammering out fossils. It is all too easy to ruin a specimen with one ill-placed blow of a hammer.

Extracting a specimen that is embedded in solid rock may prove to be a long and difficult process. Before attempting to extract a specimen, the collector should make sure that it is feasible to remove it without destroying or damaging it. Leaving sufficient rock beneath the specimen to protect it from fracturing; excess matrix can be trimmed at a later time.

For soft sediments and unconsolidated deposits, such as sands, silts and clays, a spade and a flat-bladed trowel or stout bladed knife may be the most useful tools for clearing the area around a fossil. Brushes are also useful for removing loose sediment from around fossils.

A sieve is used to separate fossils from sands and gravels. A smaller mesh is required in order to avoid losing small fossils. One practical difficulty with using sieves in the field is that they easily become clogged, especially when the material sieved has a high moisture content. However, under dry weather conditions the more durable fossils, such as teeth and bones, can be quickly and easily sieved out of loose sands. Shaking the sieve is always liable to damage or destroy fragile fossils.

If there is water available, such as on a beach or next to a stream, the material containing the fossils can be sieved wet and the matrix gradually washed away. Wet sieving is a technique that is frequently used for the collection of small mammalian fossils, and by using this technique even the smallest specimens may be recovered.

Removing gigantic fossils

Occasionally, large fragile specimens may need to be surrounded and supported using a jacket of plaster before their removal from the rock: This protects the fossil, protecting it from shattering. If a fossil is to be left in situ, a cast may be produced, using plaster of paris or latex - while not preserving every detail, such a cast is inexpensive, easier to transport, causes less damage to the environment, and leaves the fossil in place for others to enjoy. Subtle fossils which are preserved solely as impressions in sandy layers, such as the Ediacaran fossils, are usually sampled by means of a cast, which shows up detail more clearly than the rock itself.

Valuable fossils

If you find an obviously valuable fossil, you should contact a professional. It is too easy to ruin a fossil by attempting to remove it yourself. Leave the extraction in the hands of an experienced collector. If you find such a fossil on public land, contact the authority responsible for the land. The fossil belongs to them, and they have the right to decide what to do with it. To find a professional, contact a museum or a local university. If they do not have one on staff, they will be able to refer you to one.


5

Explain the difference in the account scientists give for the presence of fossils as related by evolutionists and creationists.


Evolutionists and creationists both agree that fossils are formed when a creature is quickly buried in sediment. They disagree on how long ago this happened. Evolutionists believe most fossils were made millions of years ago. Creationists believe that nearly all fossils were made during Noah's flood less than 10,000 years ago.


6

From the Bible and writings of Ellen G. White cite statements to explain the origin of the following:
a. Coal
b. Petroleum
c. Fossils
d. Limestone


From Patriarchs and Prophets, pp 107, 108
Everywhere were strewn the dead bodies of men and beasts. The Lord would not permit these to remain to decompose and pollute the air, therefore He made of the earth a vast burial ground. A violent wind which was caused to blow for the purpose of drying up the waters, moved them with great force, in some instances even carrying away the tops of the mountains and heaping up trees, rocks, and earth above the bodies of the dead.

At this time immense forests were buried. These have since been changed to coal, forming the extensive coal beds that now exist, and also yielding large quantities of oil. The coal and oil frequently ignite and burn beneath the surface of the earth. Thus rocks are heated, limestone is burned, and iron ore melted.

The Bible itself offers no explicit explanation of coal, petroleum, fossils, or limestone, though it does contain the story of Noah's flood (see Genesis chapters 6-9). In this account, the whole earth is covered by water, and all life, except those in the ark, is lost. The Biblical account of creation rejects the notion of hundred of millions of years of evolution, stating with clarity that God created the world in six days. In Genesis chapter 5, the Bible also provides genealogies of the Patriarchs, including their ages when they had children and when they died. From this, and from other historical records, the Bible sets the age of the Earth at about 6000 years.



References

There are many fine book written from a creationist perspective. Some examples:

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