Difference between revisions of "AY Honors/Soils/Answer Key"

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[[Image:DSCN0384 (Small).JPG|thumb|300px|Soil samples illustrating horizons (subsoil on right)]]
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<!-- 1. Define what "soil" means? -->
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Soil is the naturally occurring, unconsolidated or loose covering of broken rock particles and decaying organic matter (humus) on the surface of the Earth, capable of supporting life. In simple terms, soil has three components: solid, liquid, and gas. The solid phase is a mixture of mineral and organic matter. Soil particles pack loosely, forming a soil structure filled with voids. The solid phase occupies about half of the soil volume. The remaining void space contains water (liquid) and air (gas). Soil is also known as ''earth'': it is the substance from which our planet takes its name.
  
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A '''soil horizon''' is a specific layer in the [[soil]] which measures parallel to the soil surface and possesses physical characteristics which differ from the layers above and beneath. Horizon formation is a function of a range of geological, chemical, and biological processes and occurs over long time periods. Soils vary in the degree to which horizons are expressed. Relatively new deposits of soil parent material, such as alluvium, sand dunes, or volcanic ash, may have no horizon formation, or only the distinct layers of deposition. As age increases, horizons generally are more easily observed. The exception occurs in some older soils, with few horizons expressed in deeply weathered soils, such as the [[oxisols]] in tropical areas with high annual precipitation.
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<!-- 2. Where on earth is all soil located? -->
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Soil on the Earth is located only on its surface to a depth of about {{units|1.5 meters|60 inches}}.
  
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Identification and description of the horizons present at a given site is the first step in classifying a soil at higher levels, through the use of systems such as the [[USDA soil taxonomy]] or the [[Australian Soil Classification]].  
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<!-- 3. What are 5 key factors in soil formation? -->
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;Climate: Climate is the average and variations of weather in a region over long periods of time. It affects soil formation in that it provides the forces (water, wind, etc.) necessary to erode rock into soil.
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;Organisms: Organisms are living creatures (including plants, animals, fungi, etc.). Organisms are active agents of soil formation, providing organic soil components or converting it into soil.
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;Terrain: Terrain is used as a general term in physical geography, referring to the lie of the land. This is usually expressed in terms of the elevation, slope, and orientation of terrain features. Terrain affects surface water flow and distribution.
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;Parent material: Parent material means the underlying geological material (generally bedrock or a superficial or drift deposit) in which soil horizons form. Soils typically get a great deal of structure and minerals from their parent material. Parent materials are made up of consolidated or unconsolidated mineral material that has undergone some degree of physical or chemical weathering.
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;Time: All of the forces that create soil require time in which to operate. When leaves fall from trees, they are not instantly converted into soil. Similarly, erosion is a process that occurs over time.
  
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The term 'horizon' describes each of the distinctive layers that occur in a soil. Each soil type has at least one, usually three or four different horizons and these are described by soil scientists when seeking to classify soils (Soil-Net). Horizons are defined in most cases by obvious physical features, colour and texture being chief among them. These may be described both in absolute terms (particle size distribution for texture, for instance) and in terms relative to the surrounding material, ie, ‘coarser’ or ‘sandier’ than the horizons above and below.
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[[Image:Soil profile.png|thumb|220px|right|Soil Horizons]]
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The A Horizon is the top layer of the soil horizon. The technical definition of an A Horizon may vary, but it is most commonly described in terms relative to deeper layers. A Horizons may be darker in color than deeper layers and contain more organic material, or they may be lighter but contain less clay or sesquioxides. The A is a surface horizon, and as such is also known as the zone in which most biological activity occurs. Soil organisms such as worms, nematodes, fungi, and many species of bacteria is concentrated here, often in close association with plant roots. Thus the A-horizon may be referred to as the "biomantle". However, since biological activity extends far deeper into the soil, it cannot be used as a chief distinguishing feature of an A Horizon.
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B Horizons are commonly referred to as ‘subsoil’, and consist of mineral layers which may contain concentrations of clay or minerals such as iron or aluminium, or organic material. In addition, they are defined by having a distinctly different structure or consistence to the A horizon above and the horizons below. They may also have ‘stronger’ colours (i.e. higher chroma) than the A horizon.
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C Horizons are simply named so because they come ‘after’ A and B within the soil profile. These layers are little affected by soil forming processes, and their lack of pedological development is one of their defining attributes. C Horizons may contain lumps of unweathered rock, rather than being comprised solely of small fragments as in the solum. ‘Ghost’ rock structure may be present within these horizons.
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The upper soil horizons containing mostly organic matter.
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The lower soil horizons containing little organic matter.
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Soil composed primarily of fine-grained minerals, which show plasticity through a variable range of water content, and which can be hardened when dried and/or fired.
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Leaching is the loss of mineral and organic solutes due to percolation. It is a mechanism of soil formation.
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Silica is the chemical compound silicon dioxide, SiO<sub>2</sub>. It is most commonly found in nature as sand or quartz.
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Humus refers to any organic matter which has reached a point of stability, where it will break down no further and might, if conditions do not change, remain essentially as it is for centuries, if not millennia
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The different soil horizons stacked one atop the other makes up the soil profile.
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The rock from which mineral soil components was formed.
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A pedologist is a scientist who studies soil in its natural environment. Pedology (from Greek: πέδον, pedon, "soil"; and λόγος, logos, "study") is the study of soils in their natural environment. It is one of two main branches of soil science, the other being edaphology which is concerned with influence of soils on living things, particularly plants.  
  
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Most soils conform to a similar general pattern of horizons, often represented as an ‘ideal’ soil in diagrams. Each main horizon is denoted by a capital letter, which may then be followed by several alphanumerical modifiers highlighting particular outstanding features of the horizon. While the general O-A-B-C-R sequence seems fairly universal, some variation exists between the classification systems in different parts of the world. In addition, the exact definition of each main horizon may differ slightly – for instance, the US system uses the thickness of a horizon as a distinguishing feature, while the Australian system does not. It should be emphasised that no one system is more correct – as artificial constructs, their utility lies in their ability to accurately describe local conditions in a consistent manner.
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{{clear}}
  
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==Main Horizons==
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The following horizons are listed by their position from top to bottom within the [[soil profile]]. Not all of these layers are present in every location – for instance, P horizons only form in areas which have been waterlogged for long periods of time. Soils with a history of human interference, for instance through major earthworks or regular deep ploughing, may lack distinct horizons almost completely. When examining soils in the field, attention must be paid to the local geomorphology and the historical uses to which the land has been put in order to ensure that the appropriate names are applied to the observed horizons.
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<!-- 5. Define the term "Soil Classification". Why are soils classified? -->
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Soil classification deals with the systematic categorization of soils based on distinguishing characteristics as well as criteria that dictate choices in use.
  
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==Layers==
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Soil generally consists of visually and [[soil texture|texturally]] distinct layers, which can be summarized as follows from top to bottom:
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Soil classification is a dynamic subject, from the structure of the system itself, to the definitions of classes, and finally in the application in the field. Soil classification can be approached from the perspective of soil as a material and soil as a resource.
  
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<div style="float:center; width:550px; border:1px; border-style:solid; padding:2px; text-align:left">   [[Image:Soil profile.png]]
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For soil resources, experience has shown that a natural system approach to classification, i.e. grouping soils by their intrinsic property (soil morphology), behavior, or genesis, results in classes that can be interpreted for many diverse uses.
  
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:O) [[Organic matter]]: Litter layer of plant residues in relatively undecomposed form.
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Criteria are designed to guide choices in land use and soil management.
  
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:A) [[topsoil|Surface soil]]: Layer of mineral soil with most organic matter accumulation and [[soil life]]. This layer eluviates (is depleted of) iron, clay, aluminum, organic compounds, and other soluble constituents. When eluviation is pronounced, a lighter colored "E" subsurface soil horizon is apparent at the base of the "A" horizon. A-horizons may also be the result of a combination of soil [[bioturbation]] and surface processes that winnow fine particles from biologically mounded topsoil. In this case, the A-horizon is regarded as a "biomantle".
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Aridisols (or desert soils) are a soil order in USA soil taxonomy. Aridisols (from the Latin aridus, for “dry”) form in an arid or semi-arid climate. Aridisols dominate the deserts and xeric shrublands which occupy about one third of the Earth's land surface. Aridisols have a very low concentration of organic matter. Water deficiency is the major defining characteristic of Aridisols. Also required is sufficient age to exhibit sub-soil weathering and development. Imperfect leaching in Aridisols often results in one or more subsurface soil horizons in which suspended or dissolved minerals have been deposited: silicate clays, sodium, calcium carbonate, gypsum or soluble salts. These subsoil horizons can also be cemented by carbonates, gypsum or silica. Accumulation of salts on the surface can result in salinization.
  
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:B) [[Subsoil]]: Layer of alteration below an "E" or "A" horizon. This layer accumulates iron, clay, aluminum and organic compounds, a process referred to as illuviation.
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Brown earths are mostly located between 30° and 55° north of the Equator. The largest expanses cover western and central Europe, large areas of western and trans-Uralian Russia, the east coast of America and eastern Asia. Here, areas of brown earth soil types are found particularly in Japan, the Koreas, China, eastern Australia and New Zealand.  
  
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:C) [[stratum|Substratum]]: Layer of unconsolidated soil parent material. This layer may accumulate the more soluble compounds that bypass the "B" horizon.   </div>
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They generally have three horizons: the A, B and C horizon. Horizon A is usually a brownish colour, and over 20 cm in depth. It is composed of mull humus (well decomposed alkaline organic matter) and mineral matter. It is biologically active with many soil organisms and plant roots mixing the mull humus with mineral particles. As a result, the boundary between the A and B horizons can be ill defined in unploughed examples. Horizon B is mostly composed of mineral matter which has been weathered from the parent material, but it often contains inclusions of more organic material carried in by organisms, especially earthworms. It is lighter in colour than the A horizon, and is often weakly illuviated (leached). Due to limited leaching only the more soluble bases are moved down through the profile. Horizon C is made up of the parent material, which is generally permeable and non- or slightly acidic, for example clay loam.
  
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Oxisols are an order in USDA soil taxonomy, best known for their occurrence in tropical rain forest, 15-25 degrees north and south of the Equator. Some oxisols have been previously classified as laterite soils.
  
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===O Horizon===
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The “O” stands for Organic, with this surface layer being dominated by the presence of large amounts of organic material in varying stages of decomposition. The O Horizon should be held distinct from the layer of leaf litter covering many heavily vegetated areas – these contain no weathered mineral particles and are thus not part of the soil itself. If desired, O horizons may be divided into O1 and O2 categories, whereby O1 horizons contain decomposed matter whose origin can be spotted by sight (for instance, fragments of rotting leaves), and O2 horizons contain only well-decomposed organic matter whose origin cannot be immediately seen.
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The main processes of soil formation of oxisols are weathering, humification and pedoturbation due to animals. These processes produce the characteristic soil profile. They are defined as soils containing at all depths no more than 10 percent weatherable minerals, and low cation exchange capacity. Oxisols are always a red or yellowish color, due to the high concentration of iron(III) and aluminium oxides and hydroxides. In addition they also contain quartz and kaolin, plus small amounts of other clay minerals and organic matter.
  
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===P Horizon===
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These horizons are also heavily organic, but are distinct from O Horizons in that they form under waterlogged conditions. The “P” designation comes from their common name, [[peat|peats]]. They may be divided into P1 and P2 in the same way as O Horizons. {{Fact|date=February 2008}}
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The word "oxisol" comes from "oxide" in reference to the dominance of oxide minerals such as bauxite. In the FAO soil classification, oxisols are known as ferralsols.
  
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===A Horizon===
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The A Horizon is the top layer of the soil horizon. The technical definition of an A Horizon may vary, but it is most commonly described in terms relative to deeper layers. A Horizons may be darker in color than deeper layers and contain more [[organic material]], or they may be lighter but contain less [[clay]] or [[sesquioxide|sesquioxides]]. The A is a surface horizon, and as such is also known as the zone in which most [[biological activity]] occurs. Soil organisms such as [[worms]], [[nematodes]], [[fungi]], and many species of [[bacteria]] is concentrated here, often in close association with [[plant roots]]. Thus the A-horizon may be referred to as the "biomantle". However, since biological activity extends far deeper into the soil, it cannot be used as a chief distinguishing feature of an A Horizon.
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Scientists originally thought that the heavy vegetation of tropical rain forests would provide rich nutrients, but as rainfall passes through the litter on the forest floor the rain is acidified and leaches minerals from the above soil layers. This forces plants to get their nutrition from decaying litter as oxisols are quite infertile due to the lack of organic matter and the almost complete absence of soluble minerals leached by the wet and humid climate.
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A horizons may be divided into A1, A2, and A3 horizons under the Australian system. A1s contain relatively higher levels of humic matter and will have a darker colour than the A2. A3s are a transitional layer between A and B, whose characteristics are more similar to the overlying A horizons than the B horizons below.
 
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===B Horizon===
 
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B Horizons are commonly referred to as ‘subsoil’, and consist of mineral layers which may contain concentrations of clay or minerals such as iron or aluminium, or organic material. In addition, they are defined by having a distinctly different structure or consistence to the A horizon above and the horizons below. They may also have ‘stronger’ colours (ie higher [[chroma]]) than the A horizon.
 
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As with A horizons, B horizons may be divided into B1, B2, and B3 types under the Australian system. B1 is a transitional horizon of the opposite nature to an A3 – dominated by the properties of the B horizons below it, but containing some A-horizon characteristics. B2 horizons have a concentration of clay, minerals, or organics and feature the strongest [[pedological development]] within the profile. B3 horizons are transitional between the overlying B layers and the material beneath it, whether C or D horizon.
 
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The A3, B1, and B3 horizons are not tightly defined, and their use is generally at the discretion of the individual worker.
 
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===E Horizon===
 
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“E” being short for eluviated, this designation is most commonly used in the United States to label a horizon that has been significantly leached of its mineral and/or organic content, leaving a pale layer largely composed of silicates. These are present only in older, well-developed soils, and generally occur between the A and B Horizons. In regions where this designation is not employed, leached layers are classified firstly as an A or B according to other characteristics, and then appended with the designation “e” (see the section below on horizon suffixes).
 
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The above layers may be referred to collectively as the ‘solum’. The layers below have no collective name but are distinct in that they are noticeably less affected by surface soil-forming processes.
 
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===C Horizon===
 
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C Horizons are simply named so because they come ‘after’ A and B within the soil profile. These layers are little affected by soil forming processes, and their lack of pedological development is one of their defining attributes. C Horizons may contain lumps of unweathered rock, rather than being comprised solely of small fragments as in the solum. ‘Ghost’ rock structure may be present within these horizons.
 
  
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===D Horizon===
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D horizons are not universally distinguished, but in the Australian system refer to ‘any soil material below the solum that is unlike the solum in general character, is not C horizon, and cannot be given reliable designation… [it] may be recognised by the contrast in pedologic organization between it and the overlying horizons’ (MacDonald et al, 1990, p. 106).  
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<!-- 7. Examine a 2-foot vertical section of soil. Label the different types of organic matter found, identify the different soil horizons, and mark the transition from the soil layer to the mineral layer. -->
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Find a place where you have permission to dig a 2-foot deep hole. In the United States, '''call before you dig'''. Digger's Hotline, One-call or Miss Utility are services that allow construction workers to contact utility companies, who will then denote where underground utilities are located via color-coding those locations. As required by law and assigned by the FCC, the 8-1-1 telephone number will soon be used for this purpose across the United States.
  
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===R Horizon===
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R horizons basically denote the layer of partially-weathered bedrock at the base of the soil profile. Unlike the above layers, R horizons largely comprise continuous masses (as opposed to boulders) of hard rock that cannot be excavated by hand. Soils formed in situ will exhibit strong similarities to this bedrock layer, while depositional will often appear very distinct
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Failure to call such a number ahead of time may result in a fine or even a charge against the person or company, particularly if such negligence causes a major utility outage or serious accident, or an evacuation due to a gas leak. Hitting a water main may also trigger a boil-water advisory and local flooding.
  
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==Horizon numbering and suffixes==
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In addition to the main descriptors above, several modifiers exist to add necessary detail to each horizon. Firstly, each major horizon may be divided into sub-horizons by the addition of a numerical subscript, based on minor shifts in colour or texture with increasing depth (e.g., B21, B22, B23 etc). While this can add necessary depth to a field description, workers should bear in mind that excessive division of a soil profile into narrow sub-horizons should be avoided. Walking as little as ten metres in any direction and digging another hole can often reveal a very different profile in regards to the depth and thickness of each horizon. Over-precise description can be a waste of time, and as a rule of thumb, layers thinner than 5cm (2 inches) or so are best described as pans or segregations within a horizon rather than as a distinct layer.  
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A few utilities are permanently marked with short posts or bollards, mainly for lines carrying petroleum products.
  
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Suffixes describing particular physical features of a horizon may also be added. These vary considerably between countries, but a limited selection of common ones employed in Australia is listed here:
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Once you have clearance, get your shovel and start the hole. If you are lucky, perhaps someone you know is already digging a hole, and if so, ask permission to come in and make your observations. People dig holes for all kinds of reasons: footers for building a deck, trenches for laying pipe or cable, foundation for a new building, or to add to an existing one. But if no one you know is digging a hole, you may have to get out the shovel yourself.
  
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* '''c''' : presence of mineral concretions or nodules, perhaps of iron, aluminium, or manganese.
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* '''e''' : a bleached horizon.
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You can label the required features with craft sticks and a pen. Simply write a label on the craft stick with the pen, and insert it into the soil near the feature you wish to label. Alternatively, you could take a photograph of the vertical section and then import it into a word processor. Then add the labels to the photo digitally.
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* '''h''' : accumulation of organic matter.
 
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* '''p''' : disturbed by ploughing or other tillage practices (A horizon only).
 
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* '''s''' : [[sesquioxide]] accumulation.
 
  
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Thus, a bleached A2 horizon would be described as ‘A2e’.  
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<!-- 8. Draw, photograph, or collect and correctly label 5 different soil types. -->
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Listed below are a few types of soil you might collect. For a more complete listing of soil types, see the [[w:Category:Types of soil|Types of soil]] category in Wikipedia.
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===Sandy soil=== <!--T:60-->
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Sandy soil consists of relatively large particles (sand). It has a gritty texture. Sandy soil, if mixed well with organic matter, is a good medium for growing plants as long as it is kept moist. Because the particles are so large, water and air easily penetrate the soil and reach the roots of plants. However, this same quality allows the water to drain away almost immediately (which is why it must be kept moist if used for agriculture).
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===Silty soil===
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Silty soil is like sandy soil except that it contains finer particles and more nutrients. It has a darker color as well. Silty soil is one of the best soils for agriculture because like sandy soil, it allows water and air to penetrate to the roots, but unlike sandy soil, it hold the water longer.
  
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The US system employs largely similar suffixes, with a few important differences. For instance, 'e' under the US system denotes a horizon containing 'organic material of intermediate decomposition' rather than a bleached horizon. A full list of suffixes is available online as part of the [http://soils.usda.gov/technical/manual/contents/chapter3d.html#40 USDA Soil Survey Manual].
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===Clay soil=== <!--T:24-->
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Clay soil is made of very fine particles. While it is replete with minerals, plants may have a difficult time extracting them because clay is so impermeable. Wet clay will clump together when wadded into a ball in the palm of the hand.
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===Loamy Soil===
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Loamy soil is a mixture of sand, silt, and some clay. It is considered the ideal soil for agriculture, as it has good drainage and plenty of plant nutrients.
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===Peaty Soil===
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Peat is an accumulation of partially decayed vegetation matter. Peat forms in wetlands or peatlands, variously called bogs, moors, muskegs, pocosins, mires, and peat swamp forests.
  
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==Buried Soils==
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While soil formation is generally described as occurring in situ, as rock breaks down and is mixed with other materials, the process is often far more complicated. For instance, a fully-formed profile may have developed in an area only to be buried by wind- or water-deposited sediments which later formed into another soil profile. This sort of occurrence is most common in coastal areas, and descriptions are modified by numerical prefixes. Thus, a profile containing a buried sequence could be structured O, A1, A2, B2, 2A2, 2B21, 2B22, 2C with the buried profile commencing at 2A2.
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Peat forms when plant material, usually in marshy areas, is inhibited from decaying fully by acidic and anaerobic conditions. It is composed mainly of marshland vegetation: trees, grasses, fungi, as well as other types of organic remains, such as insects, and animal corpses.  
  
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Peat is soft and easily compressed. Under pressure, water in the peat is forced out. Upon drying, peat can be used as a fuel. Peat is also dug into soil to increase the soil's capacity to retain moisture and add nutrients. This makes it important agriculturally, for farmers and gardeners.
  
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===Chalky Soil=== <!--T:27-->
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Chalky soil is highly alkaline. It is composed primarily of the mineral calcite. Because chalk is porous it can hold a large volume of ground water, providing a natural reservoir that releases water slowly through dry seasons.
  
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==References==
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{{USGovernment|sourceURL=http://soils.usda.gov/technical/manual/}}
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*McDonald, R. C. et al. 1990. Australian Soil and Land Survey Field Handbook, 2nd Ed. Melbourne: Inkata Press.
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*[http://www.soil-net.com/dev/page.cfm?pageid=secondary_intro_recognition_b&menuplaceholder=secondary_intro_recognition&loginas=anon_secondary Soil-Net] section on soil horizons.
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*{{cite book | title = World reference base for soil resources| publisher = Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations| place = Rome | year = 1998 | id = 84 World Soil Resources Reports | url = http://www.fao.org/docrep/W8594E/w8594e00.HTM | isbn = 9251041415 }} see {{cite web | title = Appendix 1: Soil horizon designations | url = http://www.fao.org/docrep/W8594E/w8594e0g.htm | accessdate = 2008-02-02}}
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==References== <!--T:28-->
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*{{cite encyclopedia | title = Soil Horizon letter designations | publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica
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* http://soils.usda.gov/
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| year = 2008| encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Britannica Online| Accessdate = 2008-02-02| url = http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9343037}}
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* http://www.fao.org/WAICENT/FAOINFO/AGRICULT/AGL/agll/wrb/newkey.stm#DURISOLS
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[[Category:Pedology|Horizon, soil]]
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*Bloom, Arthur L. (1978). Geomorphology: A Systematic Approach of Late Cenozoic Landforms. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. ISBN 0-13-353086-8
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[[Category:Soil]]
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*Press, Frank and Raymond Siever. (1978). Earth.W.H. Freeman & Company. San Francisco. ISBN 0-7167-0289-4.
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[[cs:Diagnostický půdní horizont]]
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[[Category:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Do at home{{GetLangSuffix}}]]
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[[et:Mullahorisont]]
 
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[[es:Suelo#Horizontes]]
 
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[[gl:Horizonte (edafoloxía)]]
 
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[[it:Orizzonte pedologico]]
 
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[[pl:Poziom genetyczny gleby]]
 
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[[ru:Генетический почвенный горизонт]]
 
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[[sk:Pôdny horizont]]
 

Latest revision as of 17:43, 3 January 2023

Other languages:
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Soils

Skill Level

1

Year

2006

Version

25.11.2024

Approval authority

General Conference

Soils AY Honor.png
Soils
Nature
Skill Level
123
Approval authority
General Conference
Year of Introduction
2006


1

Define what "soil" means?


Soil is the naturally occurring, unconsolidated or loose covering of broken rock particles and decaying organic matter (humus) on the surface of the Earth, capable of supporting life. In simple terms, soil has three components: solid, liquid, and gas. The solid phase is a mixture of mineral and organic matter. Soil particles pack loosely, forming a soil structure filled with voids. The solid phase occupies about half of the soil volume. The remaining void space contains water (liquid) and air (gas). Soil is also known as earth: it is the substance from which our planet takes its name.


2

Where on earth is all soil located?


Soil on the Earth is located only on its surface to a depth of about 1.5 meters60 inches.


3

What are 5 key factors in soil formation?


Climate
Climate is the average and variations of weather in a region over long periods of time. It affects soil formation in that it provides the forces (water, wind, etc.) necessary to erode rock into soil.
Organisms
Organisms are living creatures (including plants, animals, fungi, etc.). Organisms are active agents of soil formation, providing organic soil components or converting it into soil.
Terrain
Terrain is used as a general term in physical geography, referring to the lie of the land. This is usually expressed in terms of the elevation, slope, and orientation of terrain features. Terrain affects surface water flow and distribution.
Parent material
Parent material means the underlying geological material (generally bedrock or a superficial or drift deposit) in which soil horizons form. Soils typically get a great deal of structure and minerals from their parent material. Parent materials are made up of consolidated or unconsolidated mineral material that has undergone some degree of physical or chemical weathering.
Time
All of the forces that create soil require time in which to operate. When leaves fall from trees, they are not instantly converted into soil. Similarly, erosion is a process that occurs over time.


4

Define the following terms:


Soil Horizons

4a

A-Horizon


The A Horizon is the top layer of the soil horizon. The technical definition of an A Horizon may vary, but it is most commonly described in terms relative to deeper layers. A Horizons may be darker in color than deeper layers and contain more organic material, or they may be lighter but contain less clay or sesquioxides. The A is a surface horizon, and as such is also known as the zone in which most biological activity occurs. Soil organisms such as worms, nematodes, fungi, and many species of bacteria is concentrated here, often in close association with plant roots. Thus the A-horizon may be referred to as the "biomantle". However, since biological activity extends far deeper into the soil, it cannot be used as a chief distinguishing feature of an A Horizon.


4b

B-Horizon


B Horizons are commonly referred to as ‘subsoil’, and consist of mineral layers which may contain concentrations of clay or minerals such as iron or aluminium, or organic material. In addition, they are defined by having a distinctly different structure or consistence to the A horizon above and the horizons below. They may also have ‘stronger’ colours (i.e. higher chroma) than the A horizon.


4c

C-Horizon


C Horizons are simply named so because they come ‘after’ A and B within the soil profile. These layers are little affected by soil forming processes, and their lack of pedological development is one of their defining attributes. C Horizons may contain lumps of unweathered rock, rather than being comprised solely of small fragments as in the solum. ‘Ghost’ rock structure may be present within these horizons.


4d

Organic layer


The upper soil horizons containing mostly organic matter.


4e

Mineral layer


The lower soil horizons containing little organic matter.


4f

Clay


Soil composed primarily of fine-grained minerals, which show plasticity through a variable range of water content, and which can be hardened when dried and/or fired.


4g

Leaching


Leaching is the loss of mineral and organic solutes due to percolation. It is a mechanism of soil formation.


4h

Silica


Silica is the chemical compound silicon dioxide, SiO2. It is most commonly found in nature as sand or quartz.


4i

Humus


Humus refers to any organic matter which has reached a point of stability, where it will break down no further and might, if conditions do not change, remain essentially as it is for centuries, if not millennia


4j

Soil Profile


The different soil horizons stacked one atop the other makes up the soil profile.


4k

Parent Material


The rock from which mineral soil components was formed.


4l

Pedologist


A pedologist is a scientist who studies soil in its natural environment. Pedology (from Greek: πέδον, pedon, "soil"; and λόγος, logos, "study") is the study of soils in their natural environment. It is one of two main branches of soil science, the other being edaphology which is concerned with influence of soils on living things, particularly plants.



5

Define the term "Soil Classification". Why are soils classified?


Soil classification deals with the systematic categorization of soils based on distinguishing characteristics as well as criteria that dictate choices in use.

Soil classification is a dynamic subject, from the structure of the system itself, to the definitions of classes, and finally in the application in the field. Soil classification can be approached from the perspective of soil as a material and soil as a resource.

For soil resources, experience has shown that a natural system approach to classification, i.e. grouping soils by their intrinsic property (soil morphology), behavior, or genesis, results in classes that can be interpreted for many diverse uses.

Criteria are designed to guide choices in land use and soil management.


6

Discuss three differences between the following soil types:


6a

Desert


Aridisols (or desert soils) are a soil order in USA soil taxonomy. Aridisols (from the Latin aridus, for “dry”) form in an arid or semi-arid climate. Aridisols dominate the deserts and xeric shrublands which occupy about one third of the Earth's land surface. Aridisols have a very low concentration of organic matter. Water deficiency is the major defining characteristic of Aridisols. Also required is sufficient age to exhibit sub-soil weathering and development. Imperfect leaching in Aridisols often results in one or more subsurface soil horizons in which suspended or dissolved minerals have been deposited: silicate clays, sodium, calcium carbonate, gypsum or soluble salts. These subsoil horizons can also be cemented by carbonates, gypsum or silica. Accumulation of salts on the surface can result in salinization.


6b

Temperate


Brown earths are mostly located between 30° and 55° north of the Equator. The largest expanses cover western and central Europe, large areas of western and trans-Uralian Russia, the east coast of America and eastern Asia. Here, areas of brown earth soil types are found particularly in Japan, the Koreas, China, eastern Australia and New Zealand.

They generally have three horizons: the A, B and C horizon. Horizon A is usually a brownish colour, and over 20 cm in depth. It is composed of mull humus (well decomposed alkaline organic matter) and mineral matter. It is biologically active with many soil organisms and plant roots mixing the mull humus with mineral particles. As a result, the boundary between the A and B horizons can be ill defined in unploughed examples. Horizon B is mostly composed of mineral matter which has been weathered from the parent material, but it often contains inclusions of more organic material carried in by organisms, especially earthworms. It is lighter in colour than the A horizon, and is often weakly illuviated (leached). Due to limited leaching only the more soluble bases are moved down through the profile. Horizon C is made up of the parent material, which is generally permeable and non- or slightly acidic, for example clay loam.


6c

Tropical


Oxisols are an order in USDA soil taxonomy, best known for their occurrence in tropical rain forest, 15-25 degrees north and south of the Equator. Some oxisols have been previously classified as laterite soils.

The main processes of soil formation of oxisols are weathering, humification and pedoturbation due to animals. These processes produce the characteristic soil profile. They are defined as soils containing at all depths no more than 10 percent weatherable minerals, and low cation exchange capacity. Oxisols are always a red or yellowish color, due to the high concentration of iron(III) and aluminium oxides and hydroxides. In addition they also contain quartz and kaolin, plus small amounts of other clay minerals and organic matter.

The word "oxisol" comes from "oxide" in reference to the dominance of oxide minerals such as bauxite. In the FAO soil classification, oxisols are known as ferralsols.

Scientists originally thought that the heavy vegetation of tropical rain forests would provide rich nutrients, but as rainfall passes through the litter on the forest floor the rain is acidified and leaches minerals from the above soil layers. This forces plants to get their nutrition from decaying litter as oxisols are quite infertile due to the lack of organic matter and the almost complete absence of soluble minerals leached by the wet and humid climate.



7

Examine a 2-foot vertical section of soil. Label the different types of organic matter found, identify the different soil horizons, and mark the transition from the soil layer to the mineral layer.


Find a place where you have permission to dig a 2-foot deep hole. In the United States, call before you dig. Digger's Hotline, One-call or Miss Utility are services that allow construction workers to contact utility companies, who will then denote where underground utilities are located via color-coding those locations. As required by law and assigned by the FCC, the 8-1-1 telephone number will soon be used for this purpose across the United States.

Failure to call such a number ahead of time may result in a fine or even a charge against the person or company, particularly if such negligence causes a major utility outage or serious accident, or an evacuation due to a gas leak. Hitting a water main may also trigger a boil-water advisory and local flooding.

A few utilities are permanently marked with short posts or bollards, mainly for lines carrying petroleum products.

Once you have clearance, get your shovel and start the hole. If you are lucky, perhaps someone you know is already digging a hole, and if so, ask permission to come in and make your observations. People dig holes for all kinds of reasons: footers for building a deck, trenches for laying pipe or cable, foundation for a new building, or to add to an existing one. But if no one you know is digging a hole, you may have to get out the shovel yourself.

You can label the required features with craft sticks and a pen. Simply write a label on the craft stick with the pen, and insert it into the soil near the feature you wish to label. Alternatively, you could take a photograph of the vertical section and then import it into a word processor. Then add the labels to the photo digitally.


8

Draw, photograph, or collect and correctly label 5 different soil types.


Listed below are a few types of soil you might collect. For a more complete listing of soil types, see the Types of soil category in Wikipedia.

Sandy soil

Sandy soil consists of relatively large particles (sand). It has a gritty texture. Sandy soil, if mixed well with organic matter, is a good medium for growing plants as long as it is kept moist. Because the particles are so large, water and air easily penetrate the soil and reach the roots of plants. However, this same quality allows the water to drain away almost immediately (which is why it must be kept moist if used for agriculture).

Silty soil

Silty soil is like sandy soil except that it contains finer particles and more nutrients. It has a darker color as well. Silty soil is one of the best soils for agriculture because like sandy soil, it allows water and air to penetrate to the roots, but unlike sandy soil, it hold the water longer.

Clay soil

Clay soil is made of very fine particles. While it is replete with minerals, plants may have a difficult time extracting them because clay is so impermeable. Wet clay will clump together when wadded into a ball in the palm of the hand.

Loamy Soil

Loamy soil is a mixture of sand, silt, and some clay. It is considered the ideal soil for agriculture, as it has good drainage and plenty of plant nutrients.

Peaty Soil

Peat is an accumulation of partially decayed vegetation matter. Peat forms in wetlands or peatlands, variously called bogs, moors, muskegs, pocosins, mires, and peat swamp forests.

Peat forms when plant material, usually in marshy areas, is inhibited from decaying fully by acidic and anaerobic conditions. It is composed mainly of marshland vegetation: trees, grasses, fungi, as well as other types of organic remains, such as insects, and animal corpses.

Peat is soft and easily compressed. Under pressure, water in the peat is forced out. Upon drying, peat can be used as a fuel. Peat is also dug into soil to increase the soil's capacity to retain moisture and add nutrients. This makes it important agriculturally, for farmers and gardeners.

Chalky Soil

Chalky soil is highly alkaline. It is composed primarily of the mineral calcite. Because chalk is porous it can hold a large volume of ground water, providing a natural reservoir that releases water slowly through dry seasons.



References

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