Difference between revisions of "AY Honors/Skiing - Cross Country/Answer Key"

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'''Cross-country skiing''' (also known as '''XC skiing''') is a [[winter sport]] popular in many countries with large snowfields, primarily [[Northern Europe]] and [[Canada]].
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[[Image:Finnish Soldiers Skiing.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Finnish people|Finnish]] [[soldier]]s on skis. Like in most of the other Scandinavian armies, virtually every [[infantry]] soldier is given ski training in the [[Finnish army]].]]
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<!--{{Honor_Master|honor=Skiing - Cross Country|master=Recreation}}-->
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<!-- 1. List and describe the principle characteristics, qualities, and sizing of the following cross-country skiing equipment: -->
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The skis are long and thin, to distribute the weight of the skier and allow the skier to move quickly. Typical ski dimensions are 2 meters in length, about 5 centimeters in width and one to four centimeters in thickness at different stations along the length of the ski. Depending on the ski design and purpose, they are fit to the skier based on height and weight. Cross country skis are sometimes informally known as "skinny skis" because of their thinness compared to alpine skis.
  
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Cross-country skiing as a sport is part of the [[Nordic skiing]] family, which also includes [[ski jumping]], and a combination sport of cross-country skiing and ski jumping called [[Nordic combined]]. Free-technique cross-country skiing is also the method of locomotion in the combination sport of [[Biathlon]], which adds [[marksmanship|rifle shooting]] to skiing. As a sport, cross-country skiing may be viewed as a kind of "[[bushwalking]] on [[ski]]s", where skiers tackle trails of various lengths and difficulties. Some skiers stay out for extended periods using [[tent]]s and equipment similar to bushwalkers, whereas others take relatively short trips from ski resorts.
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In recent years, waxless skis have carved a niche in the market among casual skiers. Waxless skis have a fish scale, cross-hatched or ridged pattern in the kick zone to provide grip. A waxless ski is inferior to a finely tuned waxed ski, but does not require the sometimes time-consuming and sometimes costly selection and application of kick wax or klister and will work between temperatures, an important advantage in areas with many sun/shadow boundaries. Some skiers apply a layer of glide wax to keep them sliding smoothly and protecting the surface from dirt and ice build-up. There are specialty liquid wax products on the market manufactured for waxless skis, though standard glide wax can also be used on the tips and tails of the ski.  
  
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==Equipment==
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Waxless skis are better suited to recreational skiers who simply want to get out on the trail with minimal time spent on maintenance, as they generally produce too much drag for competitive skiers.
  
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The [[ski]]s are long and thin, to distribute the [[weight]] of the skier and allow the skier to move quickly. Typical ski dimensions are 2 [[metre]]s in length, about 5 [[centimetre]]s in width and one centimetre in thickness.  
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Waxless skis are sometimes used by Nordic racers during variable ski conditions such as temperatures over freezing. In fact, some Nordic ski racers using waxless skis have beaten racers who used waxable skis due to the variable and changing conditions.
  
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As in [[downhill skiing]], cross-country skiers carry two [[Ski pole|pole]]s, usually made of [[aluminium]] or [[Glass-reinforced plastic|fiberglass]]. More expensive poles are made of [[graphite]] or some other light material. Poles have a [[spike]] at the end to provide a fixed [[pivot]] when the pole penetrates through to a hard surface, and a [[plastic]] ring (or ''basket''), to provide extra purchase in snow and to ensure the pole doesn't sink too deeply.
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The toe of the skier's [[ski boots|footwear]] is attached to the ski with a [[Ski binding|binding]], whilst the heel remains free.
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Equipment differs according to skiing technique. Skating or freestyle poles are usually longer than those used for the classic technique. Typically, skating poles should be long enough to reach the skier's [[chin]] or as far as the [[eyebrow]]s, depending on the skier's preference. In contrast, classic-ski poles should reach the skier's [[armpit]].
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==History==
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There are three primary groups of binding systems used in modern cross-country skiing:
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[[Image:Skiing kananaskis 018.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Recreational skiing in [[Kananaskis Country]], [[Alberta]].]]
 
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Cross-country skiing originated in [[Scandinavia]]n countries in [[prehistory|prehistoric]] times. It may have also been practiced by [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] for similar lengths of time, although the [[Norway|Norwegian]] emigrants [[Snowshoe Thompson]] and [[Jackrabbit Johannsen]] are widely credited for introducing the sport to [[North America]].
 
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The sport has been used by [[explorer]]s by means of [[transport]], and all Scandinavian armies train their infantry on skis for [[winter]] operations. Traditionally, all of the equipment was made of natural materials: [[wood]]en skis and [[bamboo]] poles with [[leather]] hand straps. Footwear was usually sturdy leather [[boot]]s with thick soles. Bindings evolved from simple straps made of twisted wood-based thread, to the so-called [[Kandahar binding]] with the fastening of both the boot’s front and back, to the ‘Rat’s Trap’ front-only binding, which is today known as the ''Nordic norm'', and has evolved in various modern bindings.
 
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==Bindings/boots==
 
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Three different binding systems are used in modern cross-country skiing:
 
 
*NNN (New Nordic Norm) &ndash; including the new R4 NIS variant
 
*NNN (New Nordic Norm) &ndash; including the new R4 NIS variant
 
*SNS (Salomon Nordic System) Profil
 
*SNS (Salomon Nordic System) Profil
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*SNS&nbsp;&nbsp;Pilot
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*SNS Pilot
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===NNN===
 
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[[NNN|New Nordic Norm]] (NNN) bindings, made by Rottefella, Rossignol, and Atomic, can range from BC (Backcountry) to the R3 Skate and R3 Classic to the NNN R4 NIS, which require a special plate on the skis to be mounted.  Boots compatible with these bindings are made by [[Alpina Sports]], Atomic and [[Rossignol]]. The R3 and R4 are generally the choice for World Cup Racers using NNN.  These are distinguished from SNS (Salomon and Fischer) bindings in that all bindings in the NNN system have two ridges that stick out from the bottom of the binding, with corresponding slots in NNN boots.  NNN is said to have better steering than Salomon because these two grooves better distribute the weight, rather than SNS's (both Profil and Pilot) single larger "bar" sticking up from the binding that fits into a slot in the boot. NNN has also been proven to be lighter than SNS bindings.  Despite this, the majority of World Cup level skiers ski on the SNS binding system, but that doesn't make one better than the other.
 
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The ''R4 NIS'' binding, made by Rottefella and Rossignol, is the top of the line NNN binding. These bindings are compatible with any NNN boot, but can only be used on Rossignol X-IUM or Madshus Hypersonic Skis&mdash;the companies' high-end pro racing skis. Madshus is part of the Rottefella/Madshus/Alpina partnership, and that is the reason for Madshus skis having NIS bindings. The reason for only two different skis being able to use these bindings is that NIS bindings require a special plate only available on these skis. The interesting thing about these bindings is that the rear part can be pivoted back and forth on the plate to match the boots' length, therefore making better power transfer between the boots and the skis. The NIS bindings made their debut to the general public in 2005.
 
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===SNS Profil===
 
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Salomon Nordic System (SNS) bindings, made by Salomon and Fischer, however, have their advantages too.  Boots that are compatible with the SNS Profil system are made by Salomon, Fischer, Adidas, and Hartjes.  SNS Profil bindings are used for both Skating and Classic. As opposed to the SNS Pilot's two axes, these boots have only one axis at the front of the sole.  Profil bindings are generally the standard binding for SNS users. Profil comes in "Equipe" models for racing, "Active" for recreational racing/combination, Auto Touring, and Back Country.
 
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===SNS Pilot===
 
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SNS Pilot bindings, compatible with Salomon, Fischer, Adidas and Hartjes boots, are only used for Skate Skiing.  The idea for these bindings came from [[Bjorn Daehlie]].  Pilots are used mostly by elite skiers at the Collegiate/Olympians/World Cup/National level, although it is common to find High School/Citizen Racers with these bindings and their counterpart boots.  Pilots are more expensive than Profils at about 100 dollars for a pair, and can only be used for Skating because there are two axes. In Pilot boots, the two axes, one positioned about 1" behind the other, click into two different slots in the Pilot binding. Profil boots only have one axis and therefore, cannot fit into Pilot bindings. However, Pilot boots can fit into any Profil bindings, due to a small space behind the front of the boot for the other axis.  Pilots can't be used for Classic because Classic boots need to be able to flex in all directions so that a good "kick" can be achieved. Pilots do not have the kind of flex required for Classic, but they have proven themselves as good Skate bindings due to reduced ski motion in the air.
 
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==Waxes==
 
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:''Main article: [[Ski wax]]''
 
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There are a wide variety of waxes for Nordic Skiing. The waxes can be classified into three main categories: ''glide waxes'', ''kick waxes'', and ''klisters''.
 
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=== Glide wax ===
 
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Glide waxes are used to make a ski glide faster, and are applied by ironing onto the ski. Glide waxes range widely in price, depending on quality; racing waxes can be very expensive. Glide waxes are applied outside the kick zone of classic skis, or to the full length of skate skis. They are the only type of wax used on skating skis.
 
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=== Kick wax ===
 
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The purpose of kick wax is to provide grip on snow when weight is transferred on a ski; they are used on classic skis only. Kick waxes are applied in the ''kick zone'' of classic skis if the ski is not a fish-scale, waxless ski.
 
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Kick waxes are classified according to their hardness: harder waxes are for colder and newer snow. Using a too hard wax will not give sufficient grip, while a too soft one will cause the formation of an [[ice]] [[sole]]s that will slow the skier down. It is not uncommon to apply a new layer of wax if the weather changes, or when moving in altitude.
 
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Kick waxes generate grip work by being penetrated by snowflakes when the skier puts his weight on the ski. Colder snowflakes are harder, and so is newly fallen snow. The most appropriate wax is the one that is soft enough to generate grip, but also hard enough not to accumulate snow and create a sole.
 
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Waxes are usually colour-coded: the most common are red is for temperatures above 0˚C, and blue for below. There are many other colours for more specific temperature ranges, for instance violet for around 0˚C, green for below -10˚C, and white for below -15˚C. The snow-temperature range given by the producer must be taken with a grain of salt, since new snow will require a harder wax.
 
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Guessing the right hardness is difficult, and the varying condition of the snow can make the right choice wrong after a few hundred metres. Furthermore, the snow in the beaten track is usually much different from the one immediately surrounding it, and works best with a softer wax. Thin snow soles can often be dealt simply by beating the ski on the track after kicking, the opposite problem may be handled by skating.
 
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=== Klister ===
 
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As the snow becomes older and snow flakes lose their sharpness, in case of re-freezing or of water, kick wax cannot provide any more grip, and it becomes useless. One must therefore resort to ''klister'', which is basically a glue-like paste ("klister" actually means "glue" across all the three [[Scandinavia]]n countries). Klister is discouraging for amateurs, as it is very sticky, it is easy to apply but very difficult to remove.
 
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Professionals often maintain that klister is best applied with the palm of the hand, but it is generally not clear how to clean the hand afterwards; amateurs often resort to some object of the appropriate size. Since klister is an organic chemical, a non-polar [[solvent]] (such as [[gasoline]]) or a [[soap]] is necessary to remove it. Stores often sell purpose-made solvent to clean skis. These should be used with care, as they are both [[flame|flammable]] and [[toxicity|toxic]] if inhaled.
 
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Klister is also colour-coded, with red klister for wet snow and blue klister for icy snow.
 
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=== Waxless skis ===
 
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In recent years, waxless skies have obtained some success in the market. Waxless skis have normally a [[fish]] [[scale (zoology)|scale]] pattern in the kick zone that is supposed to provide the grip. A waxless ski is inferior to a finely tuned waxed ski, but does not require waxing (except some seasonal protective waxing).
 
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==Sports events==
 
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Today, there are several types of cross-country competitive events, involving [[racing|race]]s of various types and lengths, as well as [[biathlon]], involving a combination of cross-country skiing and [[rifle]] shooting.
 
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The [[Winter Olympics]], the [[International Ski Federation|FIS]] World Championships and the FIS World Cup events have long been a [[showcase]] for the world's fastest cross country skiers. There are also special distance ski races, sometimes called [[Worldloppet_Ski_Federation|ski marathon]]s, like [[Vasaloppet]] in [[Sweden]] and [[Birkebeinerrennet]] in Norway. The skiing styles in these races might be fixed, or, in case of the so-called "double pursuit" event, the two styles are used each in their own separate half of the race (with a change of equipment in "pit stops" half way through).
 
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*[[Olympic medalists in cross-country skiing]]
 
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*[[Nordic skiing World Championships|Cross-country skiing World Championships]]
 
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*[[Cross-country skiing World Cup medalists]]
 
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==Styles==
 
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There are three main styles used in cross-country skiing.  Specially adapted equipment is available to suit each.
 
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The Classic style was the first technique that was used and although not the fastest (in the same way as the breaststroke swimming technique) it is still used today by many, especially beginners, as it tends to be the easiest to learn.  However, this technique takes many years to perfect.
 
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The skating style, developed as a result of racing and is harder to learn but once mastered the skiers can travel much faster. Skating can also be mastered faster than classic.
 
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Telemarking is a style used to go down hill on cross country skis. Usually the skiers will use the classic style for going up the hill and telemarking to ski down steep downhills.
 
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===Classic===
 
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The classic style is often used on prepared trails (pistes) that have pairs of parallel grooves cut into the snow.
 
  
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Skis have [[camber]] and should leave the centre section of the ski clear of the snow when the skiers weight is evenly distributed between the pair. The centre section of a classic ski will either have "fish scales", or [[ski wax]] that will stick to the snow (called the "kick zone" or "grip zone" of the ski). When full weight is transferred to a single ski the kick zone comes into contact with the snow. Glide wax is used on the tails and tips of the skis.
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Older styled three-pin bindings (Nordic Norm), with or without cables, are still used by backcountry and Telemarking enthusiasts.
  
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Long, narrow and light skis are usually used. When skiing away from prepared trails, a much wider ski is usually used. In flat regions, such as parts of [[Finland]], skis exceeding 3 or 4 m in length are sometimes used.
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Further variants to NNN and SNS are "BC" (back-country) standards, where the toe hold in the binding is wider and the bar in the boot's toe is longer and thicker in order to give further lateral rigidity. This added strength and rigidity is especially important with the stiffer boots and heavier skis used in backcountry skiing.  
  
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There are four core techniques: herringbone, diagonal stride, double pole with kick, and double pole.
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The existing variety of binding systems, none of which are compatible with the other, has long since been a source of frustration for skiers ever since manufacturers diverged from the almost universal three-pin standard. Whereas downhill skiing has a common binding system allowing any boot to work with any binding short of the dynafit-system, modern cross-country skiers must match the skis' binding system to the boot type. When it is time to change the boot, the skier must either be limited to boots of the same binding system or also change the skis' binding.
  
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====Herringbone====
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====New Nordic Norm==== <!--T:10-->
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This technique is used for climbing steep hills. A walking or running action with splayed skis and without any glide. The poles are planted alternately behind the skis. A distinctive herringbone pattern is left in the snow.  
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Rottefella developed the New Nordic Norm (NNN) binding, and licenses it to Rossignol, Madshus, Atomic, and, beginning in 2007, Fischer. } These bindings have subtypes, such as the NNN-BC for backcountry use, the R3 Skate, the R3 Classic, and the R4 NIS (Nordic Integrated System). The NIS system requires skis that have a permanently bonded plate that the binding slides onto. This allows for the skier to mount their own bindings without needing to screw into the ski. By doing this the skier can easily tune the position of the binding relative to the center of gravity of the ski, said to be useful in different snow conditions. NNN boots are made by Alpina Sports, Madshus, Rossignol and beginning in 2007, Fischer. The R3 and R4 are generally the choice for World Cup Racers using NNN. } These are distinguished from the SNS (Salomon and Atomic) binding in that all NNN bindings have two longitudinal ridges that stick out from the bottom of the binding that mate with corresponding slots in NNN boots. There is much debate over which is the superior binding system: SNS or NNN. Overall, the differences between the NNN and SNS binding systems are minuscule to the average skier; the choice should come down to which binding fits with the boot that happens to fit a given skier.
  
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====Diagonal Stride====
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An exaggerated running action with parallel skis and a glide on each stride. The poles are planted alternately on the opposite side to the kick. For experienced skiers this technique is used uphill. Less experienced skiers also employ the diagonal stride on the flat.
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The ''R4 NIS'' binding, made by Rottefella and Rossignol, is the newest variant of the NNN binding. These bindings are compatible with any NNN boot, but can only be used on skis that come with the permanently bonded plate, presently made only by Rossignol, Madshus, and Fischer. The NIS binding made its debut to the general public in 2005.
  
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====Double Pole with Kick====
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Both poles are planted simultaneously to give a powerful thrust. As the poles swing forwards again  a single leg kick is made. This technique is used when the skier is still moving too quickly to diagonal stride, but is having difficulty double poling (typically on slight uphills or at the bottom of a long hill, just before switching to diagonal stride).
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[[Image:Cross-country skiing, bindings.JPG|right|thumb|SNS binding and ski boots, both of the Salomon brand.]]
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Salomon Nordic System (SNS) bindings, made by Salomon and Atomic, however, have their advantages too. Boots that are compatible with the SNS Profil system are made by Salomon, Atomic, Adidas, and Hartjes. SNS Profil bindings are used for both Skating and Classic. As opposed to the SNS Pilot's two axes, these boots have only one axis at the front of the sole. Pilots are used by many different racers on the World Cup Circuit. Profil bindings are the standard binding for SNS users, its only competition being the SNS Pilot system. Profil comes in "Equipe" models for racing, "Active" for recreational racing/combination, Auto Touring, and Back Country. Fischer was for many years synonymous with SNS as well, but switched to the more widely used NNN for the 2007/2008 season and beyond.
  
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====Double Pole====
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====Salomon Nordic System Pilot==== <!--T:13-->
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As above but without the kick. During some long races, in reasonably flat terrain, competitors double pole for the majority of the course (an example of this is the Swedish [[Vasaloppet]]).
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SNS Pilot bindings, compatible with Salomon, Atomic, Adidas and Hartjes boots. As of the 2006/2007 season, Atomic will also have SNS pilot on their boots. The idea for these bindings came from Bjørn Dæhlie. Pilots are used mostly by elite skiers at the Collegiate/Olympians/World Cup/National level, although it is common to find High School/Citizen Racers with these bindings and their counterpart boots. Pilots are more expensive than Profils at about 100 U.S. dollars for a pair, and have two completely different designs for skate skiing and classical skiing. In Pilot boots, two axes (metal bars), one positioned about 1" (2.5 cm) behind the other, click into two different slots in the Pilot binding. Profil boots only have one axis and therefore cannot fit into Pilot bindings. However, Pilot boots can fit into most Profil bindings, due to a small space behind the front of the boot for the other axis. Pilot Skate bindings are superior to Profil due to the two latches reducing ski motion in the air. The Pilot Classic (released at the end of the 2005-2006 season) doesn't have the bumper found on all NNN and SNS Profil bindings. These new boots and bindings provide a superior subtle kick through a spring loaded back slot for the back axis. Unlike the rubber bumpers, this spring has adjustable tension that can be changed in different snow conditions. Fischer has now started producing their new boots with the NNN system.
  
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On downhill slopes a tucked position is assumed in a similar manner to [[downhill skiing]].
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Shoes (boots) are covered in the Bindings section above.
  
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===Free ===
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[[Image:Skipcxc.JPG|thumb|200px|right|Skiing by free technique/skating.]]
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Free technique  ([[Freestyle_skiing|Freestyle]] is a descriptive word only correctly applied to a ski sport where the competitors compete over a mogul course and by performing aerial gymnastics such as spins after launching from a short ramp in the snow), aka skating, involves the skier pushing one ski outward with the [[ski]] angled, so that the inner edge of the ski is driven against the snow, much like an [[ice skating|ice skater]]. It is also important to balance on one ski to be efficient. Skis tend to be shorter than those used in classical technique, and poles longer. There is also no fish scale or sticky wax applied and no kick area. There are various combinations of ski and pole movements to suit the terrain and conditions.  The technique is only suitable for use on prepared trails (pistes) or those with firm, smooth snow. In some places where the snow melts slightly at the beginning of spring a person can ski on the crust.
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Like alpine skiing, cross-country skiers carry two poles, usually made of aluminium or fiberglass. More expensive poles are made of graphite or carbon fiber or some other strong but lightweight material. Poles have a spike at the end to provide a fixed pivot when the pole penetrates through to a hard surface, and a plastic web or disc (called the basket), to provide extra purchase in snow and to ensure the pole doesn't sink too deeply.
  
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The distinction between Classic technique and Free technique is made in competition i.e. a race will be designated as Classic or Free*. In the case of the former only those propulsion techniques that are considered 'classic' are allowed whereas in the latter the competitors are free to use any technique although the majority of competitors will opt to skate since it is marginally faster than the traditional classic technique. This is a direct parallel to the world of competitive swimming where in a freestyle race competitors can use any technique but will normally use the Australian crawl stroke.
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<!-- 2. Describe and demonstrate how the above gear would be prepared for use and cared for both on the field and during the off season. -->
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Recent developments in the sport include 'Continuous Pursuit' races where the competitors complete the first part of the event using the classic technique and the second part using the free technique.
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===Telemark===
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:''Main article: [[Telemark skiing]]''
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Always practice the Leave No Trace 7 Principles.
  
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The Telemark technique is particularly suited to [[backcountry skiing]] (off piste cross-country skiing). While first and foremost it is a technique for descending, for those with dedicated equipment it is effectively a separate branch of skiing that takes place in the backcountry (off piste).
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1) Plan ahead and prepare. 2) Travel and camp on durable surfaces. 3) Dispose of waste properly. 4) Leave what you find. 5) Minimize campfire impacts (be careful with fire). 6) Respect wildlife. 7) Be considerate of other visitors. © 1999 by the Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor Ethics: www.LNT.org.
  
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==See also==  
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*[[Skiing|Skiing and Skiing Topics]]
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*[[Ski touring]]
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It is always important to ski with a buddy for safety reasons. It is also more fun.
  
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==External links==
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*[http://www.fis-ski.com/uk/disciplines/cross-country.html FIS-Ski cross-country skiing portal] &ndash; Featuring the latest results, ongoing and upcoming events, and World Cup standings
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*[http://www.swixschool.no/ SWIX school] &ndash; Ski wax and ski pole producer SWIX's guide to ski waxing
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*[http://www.cccski.com/ Cross Country Canada] &ndash; Canada's Cross Country Ski Program
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[[Category:Cross-country skiing|*]]
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[[ja:&#12463;&#12525;&#12473;&#12459;&#12531;&#12488;&#12522;&#12540;&#12473;&#12461;&#12540;]]
 
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Latest revision as of 22:59, 18 July 2022

Other languages:
English • ‎español • ‎français
Skiing - Cross Country

Skill Level

2

Year

1986

Version

23.11.2024

Approval authority

General Conference

Skiing Cross Country AY Honor.png
Skiing - Cross Country
Recreation
Skill Level
123
Approval authority
General Conference
Year of Introduction
1986
See also
Recreation Master Award


1

List and describe the principle characteristics, qualities, and sizing of the following cross-country skiing equipment:


1a

Skis (both waxable and unwaxable)


The skis are long and thin, to distribute the weight of the skier and allow the skier to move quickly. Typical ski dimensions are 2 meters in length, about 5 centimeters in width and one to four centimeters in thickness at different stations along the length of the ski. Depending on the ski design and purpose, they are fit to the skier based on height and weight. Cross country skis are sometimes informally known as "skinny skis" because of their thinness compared to alpine skis.

In recent years, waxless skis have carved a niche in the market among casual skiers. Waxless skis have a fish scale, cross-hatched or ridged pattern in the kick zone to provide grip. A waxless ski is inferior to a finely tuned waxed ski, but does not require the sometimes time-consuming and sometimes costly selection and application of kick wax or klister and will work between temperatures, an important advantage in areas with many sun/shadow boundaries. Some skiers apply a layer of glide wax to keep them sliding smoothly and protecting the surface from dirt and ice build-up. There are specialty liquid wax products on the market manufactured for waxless skis, though standard glide wax can also be used on the tips and tails of the ski.

Waxless skis are better suited to recreational skiers who simply want to get out on the trail with minimal time spent on maintenance, as they generally produce too much drag for competitive skiers.

Waxless skis are sometimes used by Nordic racers during variable ski conditions such as temperatures over freezing. In fact, some Nordic ski racers using waxless skis have beaten racers who used waxable skis due to the variable and changing conditions.


1b

Bindings


There are three primary groups of binding systems used in modern cross-country skiing:

  • NNN (New Nordic Norm) – including the new R4 NIS variant
  • SNS (Salomon Nordic System) Profil
  • SNS Pilot

Older styled three-pin bindings (Nordic Norm), with or without cables, are still used by backcountry and Telemarking enthusiasts.

Further variants to NNN and SNS are "BC" (back-country) standards, where the toe hold in the binding is wider and the bar in the boot's toe is longer and thicker in order to give further lateral rigidity. This added strength and rigidity is especially important with the stiffer boots and heavier skis used in backcountry skiing.

The existing variety of binding systems, none of which are compatible with the other, has long since been a source of frustration for skiers ever since manufacturers diverged from the almost universal three-pin standard. Whereas downhill skiing has a common binding system allowing any boot to work with any binding short of the dynafit-system, modern cross-country skiers must match the skis' binding system to the boot type. When it is time to change the boot, the skier must either be limited to boots of the same binding system or also change the skis' binding.

New Nordic Norm

Rottefella developed the New Nordic Norm (NNN) binding, and licenses it to Rossignol, Madshus, Atomic, and, beginning in 2007, Fischer. } These bindings have subtypes, such as the NNN-BC for backcountry use, the R3 Skate, the R3 Classic, and the R4 NIS (Nordic Integrated System). The NIS system requires skis that have a permanently bonded plate that the binding slides onto. This allows for the skier to mount their own bindings without needing to screw into the ski. By doing this the skier can easily tune the position of the binding relative to the center of gravity of the ski, said to be useful in different snow conditions. NNN boots are made by Alpina Sports, Madshus, Rossignol and beginning in 2007, Fischer. The R3 and R4 are generally the choice for World Cup Racers using NNN. } These are distinguished from the SNS (Salomon and Atomic) binding in that all NNN bindings have two longitudinal ridges that stick out from the bottom of the binding that mate with corresponding slots in NNN boots. There is much debate over which is the superior binding system: SNS or NNN. Overall, the differences between the NNN and SNS binding systems are minuscule to the average skier; the choice should come down to which binding fits with the boot that happens to fit a given skier.

The R4 NIS binding, made by Rottefella and Rossignol, is the newest variant of the NNN binding. These bindings are compatible with any NNN boot, but can only be used on skis that come with the permanently bonded plate, presently made only by Rossignol, Madshus, and Fischer. The NIS binding made its debut to the general public in 2005.

Salomon Nordic System Profil

SNS binding and ski boots, both of the Salomon brand.

Salomon Nordic System (SNS) bindings, made by Salomon and Atomic, however, have their advantages too. Boots that are compatible with the SNS Profil system are made by Salomon, Atomic, Adidas, and Hartjes. SNS Profil bindings are used for both Skating and Classic. As opposed to the SNS Pilot's two axes, these boots have only one axis at the front of the sole. Pilots are used by many different racers on the World Cup Circuit. Profil bindings are the standard binding for SNS users, its only competition being the SNS Pilot system. Profil comes in "Equipe" models for racing, "Active" for recreational racing/combination, Auto Touring, and Back Country. Fischer was for many years synonymous with SNS as well, but switched to the more widely used NNN for the 2007/2008 season and beyond.

Salomon Nordic System Pilot

SNS Pilot bindings, compatible with Salomon, Atomic, Adidas and Hartjes boots. As of the 2006/2007 season, Atomic will also have SNS pilot on their boots. The idea for these bindings came from Bjørn Dæhlie. Pilots are used mostly by elite skiers at the Collegiate/Olympians/World Cup/National level, although it is common to find High School/Citizen Racers with these bindings and their counterpart boots. Pilots are more expensive than Profils at about 100 U.S. dollars for a pair, and have two completely different designs for skate skiing and classical skiing. In Pilot boots, two axes (metal bars), one positioned about 1" (2.5 cm) behind the other, click into two different slots in the Pilot binding. Profil boots only have one axis and therefore cannot fit into Pilot bindings. However, Pilot boots can fit into most Profil bindings, due to a small space behind the front of the boot for the other axis. Pilot Skate bindings are superior to Profil due to the two latches reducing ski motion in the air. The Pilot Classic (released at the end of the 2005-2006 season) doesn't have the bumper found on all NNN and SNS Profil bindings. These new boots and bindings provide a superior subtle kick through a spring loaded back slot for the back axis. Unlike the rubber bumpers, this spring has adjustable tension that can be changed in different snow conditions. Fischer has now started producing their new boots with the NNN system.


1c

Shoes


Shoes (boots) are covered in the Bindings section above.


1d

Poles


Like alpine skiing, cross-country skiers carry two poles, usually made of aluminium or fiberglass. More expensive poles are made of graphite or carbon fiber or some other strong but lightweight material. Poles have a spike at the end to provide a fixed pivot when the pole penetrates through to a hard surface, and a plastic web or disc (called the basket), to provide extra purchase in snow and to ensure the pole doesn't sink too deeply.



2

Describe and demonstrate how the above gear would be prepared for use and cared for both on the field and during the off season.




3

What consideration should be made when selecting clothing to be worn while cross-country skiing? What features would you look for when selecting a pack for cross-country ski touring?



4

Demonstrate properly on skis the following travel techniques:


4a

Flat striding with good kick, purchase, and form



4b

Single poling, change-up, and double poling



4c

Side stepping up and down slopes



4d

Herringbone slope climbing



4e

Traverse-side stepping up slope with kick turns



4f

Straight up slope climbing



4g

Straight downhill running under control, 20 degree slope (schuss)



4h

Moving step turning down slope



4i

Snow plowing for slowing speed and stopping



4j

Sitback stopping




5

Explain the purpose of waxing. Briefly explain the need for different waxes for different snow types and temperatures.



6

Explain basic safety precautions to follow in cross-country skiing.



7

Know and explain the official National Ski rules for conduct in cross-country skiing


Always practice the Leave No Trace 7 Principles.

1) Plan ahead and prepare. 2) Travel and camp on durable surfaces. 3) Dispose of waste properly. 4) Leave what you find. 5) Minimize campfire impacts (be careful with fire). 6) Respect wildlife. 7) Be considerate of other visitors. © 1999 by the Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor Ethics: www.LNT.org.


8

Demonstrate skiing ability by doing the following:


8a

Take three separate three-mile trail tours with another individual. If possible, have varying snow conditions.


It is always important to ski with a buddy for safety reasons. It is also more fun.


8b

Take a ten-mile tour over varying terrain.



8c

During all tours carry necessary gear (safely) and wear proper clothing for conditions demonstrating ability to maintain proper body temperature, dryness, and condition.





References

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