Difference between revisions of "AY Honors/Native American Lore/Answer Key"

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'''Tracking''' in [[hunting]] is the science and art of observing a place through animal footprints and other signs, including: [[animal tracks|tracks]], beds, chews, [[scat]], hair, etc.  Specifically, mapping a changing landscape and soaking up sensory data like a sponge. Another goal is the further understanding of the systems and patterns around you, including that of the animal life. So called, "master trackers", are able to know an animal through its tracks and trails, also known as spoor. These include not only identification and interpretation of tracks, but also scat (or [[feces]]), feathers, kills, scratching posts, trails, drag marks, sounds, marking posts, and more.  There is a story in most of these marks to be found. The skilled tracker is able to discern these markings and recreate what transpired.  Tracking has been traditionally practiced for thousands of years by the majority of tribal peoples all across the world.  
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<!-- 1. Name five uses made of natural materials by the Northwest Indians. -->
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;Vermilion: Vermilion was used as a red pigment.
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;Cedar: Cedar planks were used for building longhouses. Red and yellow cedar was also used for totem poles, ceremonial masks, rattles, food containers, bentwood boxes, spoons, spindles, hats, capes, effigies, and dugout canoes.
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;Rush: Mats, skirts, hats, rattles, baskets, temporary dwellings were made from rush (tules).
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;Dog & Mountain Sheep hair: Hair from a wooly dog bred by these peoples for this purpose, or mountain sheep was combined with cedar bark and spun into yarn, which was then woven into blankets. They also used down feathers from ducks and geese.
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;Buffalo: The inland tribes made tipis, clothing, bags and pouches, clothing, backrests, pictographs, parfletches, drums, rattles, moccasins, buffalo robes, padding out of the hides. Glue, needles & thread out of the sinew. Cooking pots from the stomach, rattles from hooves, brain tanning produces a high quality leather.
  
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==The Art of Tracking==
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<!-- 2. Name five uses made of the yucca plant by the Southwest Indians. -->
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;Food: The flowers, young stalk, and some parts of the fruit of the yucca were a staple of the southwest diet.
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;Cordage: The fibers of the yucca plant leaves were spun into rope. This rope was in turn used for many things including '''sandals''', '''belts''', '''rope ladders''', and '''fishnets'''.
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;Paintbrush: The fibers of the yucca leaves were chewed or pounded into a fine fringe and used as a paintbrush for decorating pottery.
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;Shampoo: The roots of the yucca plant were pounded and whipped into cold water to make suds. Being that Yucca is in the lily order (Liliales) it has a bulb type "root" that often sits on top of the ground. (Soap plant is different from the Yucca and can be used to wash the finest linens and silks.)
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;Basketry: The leaves of the yucca plant were woven into baskets.
  
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The art of tracking very well may be the origin of science, practiced by [[hunter-gatherer]]s since the evolution of modern humans. After hundreds of thousands of years, traditional tracking skills may soon be lost. Yet tracking can be developed into a new science with far-reaching implications for nature conservation.  
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<!-- 3. Name five uses made of the birch tree by the Eastern Woodland Indians. -->
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The bark of the Birch tree, especially the Paper Birch, were used for making the outer covering of their '''canoes'''. Bark was also used for making '''bowls''' and '''tipis'''. The bark contains a resinous oil and peels into papery-thin strips which ignite easily with even the slightest spark, and thus, the bark was also used as '''tinder'''. The wood of the birch contains the same resinous oil, and burns even when wet. It was therefore used as '''firewood'''. Birch bark was also used for making '''torches''' which they used for night fishing.
  
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Apart from knowledge based on direct observations of animals, trackers gain a detailed understanding of animal behavior through the interpretation of tracks and signs. In this way much information can be obtained that would otherwise remain unknown, especially on the behavior of rare or nocturnal animals that are not often seen.
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The bark was also used for brewing a '''wintergreen tea ''' high in vitamin C. '''Fans''' were also manufactured, and were used both for creating a cool breeze and for fanning fires. Birch bark was also used for making '''armguards''' and '''quivers''' for archery, '''rattles''', and for '''wrapping food'''. The trees were tapped for their sap in the spring and used as a '''beverage''' or made into '''birch syrup''', much as maple sap is made into maple syrup.
  
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Furthermore, tracks and signs offer information on undisturbed, natural behavior, while direct observations often influence the animal by the mere presence of the observer. Tracking is therefore a non-invasive method of information gathering, in which potential stress caused to animals can be minimized.  
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<!-- 4. Know 15 plant foods introduced to us by the Indians. Include four plant names used today. -->
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Squash, corn, and beans were known as the "Three Sisters" by Native Americans. The Three Sisters were the three main indigenous plants used for agriculture. These were usually planted together, with the cornstalk providing support for the climbing beans (pinto, kidney, navy, black, pink, cranberry beans, etc.), and shade for the squash. The squash vines provided ground cover to limit weeds and deter animals. The beans provided nitrogen fixing for all three crops.
  
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In the [[third world]], for instance in parts of Africa, creating employment opportunities for trackers provides economic benefits to local communities. In addition, non-literate trackers who have in the past been employed as unskilled laborers can gain recognition for their specialized expertise.
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Native Americans ate from about 1000 different species of plants. Now grocery stores sell food items made from about 100 species of plants. However the 1000 species do not all grow in the same area. Go to http://plants.usda.gov and see plant range maps of every known plant in North America.
  
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The employment of trackers will also help to retain traditional skills which may otherwise be lost in the near future. This has cultural significance in that communities will be able to make a unique contribution to conservation. This will create a sense of cultural ownership of conservation, which may well be one of the most important contributions traditional tracking can make.
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{{:AY Honors/Native American Foods}}
  
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Some of the most important applications of tracking are in hunting and trapping, as well as controlling poaching, ecotourism, environmental education, police investigation, search and rescue, and in scientific research.
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<!-- 5. Describe Indian stalking and tracking. -->
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{{:AY Honors/Stalking and tracking}}
  
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==Recognition of signs==
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<!-- 6. Name five rocks and/or minerals and uses made of them by the Indians. -->
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Image:Arrowhead.jpg|Obsidian arrowhead
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Image:Chaco Anasazi canteen NPS.jpg|Pottery
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Image:Chacoan turquoise pendant.jpg|Turquoise pendant
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Image:Chacoan turquoise with argillite.jpg|Turquoise and argillite tiles
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# '''Flint''', used for making arrowheads, knives, and other cutting tools.
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# '''Obsidian''', used the same way as flint.
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# '''Clay''', used for making pottery and effigies.
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# '''Turquoise''', used for adornment and ceremonies.
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# '''Argillite''', used in art.
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# '''Vermilion''', used as body paint, combined with "glue" was used for pictographs on hides and rawhides.
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# '''Soapstone''', used for carvings, bowls, cooking slabs, and other objects.
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# '''Granite, quartzite, basalt, sandstone, and slate''', used for making hammers, axes, adzes, hoes, bowls, vases, and other items.
  
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To be able to recognize signs trackers must know what to look for and where to look for them. Someone who is not familiar with spoor may not recognize it, even when looking straight at the sign. It may seem as if no signs are present at all. In order to recognize slight disturbances in nature, trackers must know the pattern of undisturbed nature. Only when they are familiar with the terrain, the ground and the vegetation in its natural or "baseline" state, will they be able to recognize very subtle disturbances in it.  
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A '''flintknapper''' is an individual who shapes flint or other stone through the process of knapping or lithic reduction, to manufacture stone tools.
  
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In order to recognize a specific sign, a tracker often has a preconceived image of what a typical sign looks like.  Without such preconceived images many signs may be overlooked. However, with a preconceived image of a specific animal's spoor in mind, trackers will tend to 'recognize' spoor in markings made by another animal, or even in random markings. Their mind will be prejudiced to see what they want to see, and in order to avoid making such errors they must be careful not to reach decisions too soon. Decisions made at a glance can often be erroneous, so when encountering new signs, time should be taken to study them in detail.  
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Knapping is done in a variety of ways depending on the purpose of the final product.
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For stone tools flint is worked using a fabricator, such as a hammerstone, to remove flakes from a core of tool stone. Stone tools can then be further refined using wood, bone, and antler tools to perform pressure flaking.
  
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While preconceived images may help in recognizing signs, the tracker must, however, avoid the preconditioned tendency to look for one set of things in the environment to the exclusion of all others. If one goes out with the intention of seeing a particular set of things, the mind is shut off from everything else. Trackers need to vary their vision in order to see new things.  
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There are many different methods of shaping stone into useful tools. The three simplest techniques are mentioned below.
  
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Trackers will always try to identify the trail positively by some distinguishing mark or mannerism in order not to lose it in any similar spoor. They will look for such features in the footprints as well as for an individual manner of walking. Often hoofs of antelope are broken or have chipped edges, or when the animal is walking it may leave a characteristic scuffmark. Experienced trackers will memorise a spoor and be able to distinguish that individual animal's spoor from others. When following a spoor, trackers will walk next to it, not on it, taking care not to spoil the trail so that it can easily be found again if the spoor is lost.  
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===Hard Hammer Precussion=== <!--T:14-->
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[[Image:Hard_Hammer.jpg|thumb|left|An example of hard hammer percussion.]]
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Hard hammer techniques are used to remove large flakes of stone. Early flintknappers and hobbyists replicating their methods often use cobbles about the size of a baseball or softball of very hard stone, such as quartzite or hard granite. This technique can be used by flintknappers to remove broad flakes that can be made into smaller tools.
  
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The shadows cast by ridges in the spoor show up best if the spoor is kept between the tracker and the sun. With the sun shining from behind the spoor, the shadows cast by small ridges and indentations in the spoor will be clearly visible. With the sun behind the tracker, however, these shadows will be hidden by the ridges that cast them. Tracking is easiest in the morning and late afternoon, as the shadows cast by the ridges in the spoor are longer and stand out better than at or near midday. As the sun moves higher in the sky, the shadows grow shorter. At midday the spoor may cast no shadows at all, making them difficult to see in the glare of the sunlight.  
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===Soft Hammer Precussion=== <!--T:15-->
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[[Image:Soft_Hammer.jpg|thumb|right|An example of soft hammer percussion]]
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Early flintknappers could have used simple hammers made of wood or antler to shape stone tools. Soft hammer techniques are more precise than hard hammer methods of shaping stone. Soft hammer techniques allow a flintknapper to shape a stone into many different kinds of cutting, scraping, and projectile tools.  
  
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Trackers will never look down at their feet if they can help it, since this will slow them down. By looking up, well ahead of themselves, approximately five to ten meters (15-30 feet) depending on the terrain, they are able to track much faster and with more ease. Unless they need to study the spoor more closely, it is not necessary to examine every sign. If they see a sign ten meters ahead, those in between can be ignored while they look for spoor further on. Over difficult terrain it may not be possible to see signs well ahead, so trackers will have to look at the ground in front of them and move more slowly.  
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===Pressure Flaking=== <!--T:16-->
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[[Image:Pressure_Flaking.jpg|thumb|left|An example of pressure flaking]]
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Pressure flaking involves removing narrow flakes along the edge of a stone tool. This technique is often used to do detailed thinning and shaping of a stone tool. Pressure flaking involves putting a large amount of force across a region on the edge of the tool and (hopefully) causing a narrow flake to come off of the stone. Modern hobbyists often use pressure flaking tools with a copper or brass tip, but early flintknappers could have used antler tines or a pointed wooden punch.
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Trackers must also avoid concentrating all their attention on the tracks, thereby ignoring everything around them. Tracking requires varying attention, a constant refocusing between minute details of the track and the whole pattern of the environment.
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<!-- 8. Define pictograph. What are Indian petroglyphs and where can you find them? -->
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A '''pictograph''' is an image drawn or painted on a rock face. A '''petroglyph''' is an image carved into a rock face. The word comes from the Greek words petro-, meaning "stone" (think of Peter which means rock {{Bible link|Matthew 16:18}}) and glyphein meaning "to carve", and was originally coined in French as pétroglyphe. Petroglyphs are found world-wide, and are often (but not always) associated with prehistoric peoples.
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Image:Newspaper rock.jpg|Newspaper Rock State Historic Monument, southern Utah, USA
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image:Petroglyphs on a Bishop Tuff tableland-750px.jpg|Petroglyphs on a Bishop Tuff tableland, eastern California, USA
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image:Pictograph_2_tds.jpg|Southern Utah, USA
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image:Pictograph_tds.jpg|Southern Utah, USA
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Image:Ute Petroglyphs in Arches National Park.jpg|Arches National Park
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Image:Petroglyph in Arizona 2007-01-20.jpg|Arizona, USA
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Image:Petroglyphs in the Columbia River Gorge.jpg|Columbia River Gorge, Washington, USA
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Image:PetroglyphBelfastLassnCA.jpg|Pete's creek Belfast area of Lassen county California, USA
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Sites in North America where petroglyphs can be found include:
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* Arches National Park, Utah
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* Capitol Reef National Park, Utah
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* Death Valley National Park, California
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* Dinosaur National Monument, Colorado and Utah
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* Columbia Hills State Park, Washington
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* The Cove Palisades State Park, Oregon
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* Jeffers Petroglyphs, Minnesota
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* Kanopolis State Park, Kansas
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* Kejimkujik National Park, Nova Scotia
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* Lava Beds National Monument, Tule Lake, California
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* Leo Petroglyph, Leo, Ohio[http://www.ohiohistory.org/places/leopetro/]
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* Newspaper Rock State Historic Monument, Utah
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* Mina, Nuevo León, Mexico
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* Olympic National Park, Washington
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* Petit Jean State Park, Arkansas
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* Petrified Forest National Park
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* Petroglyph National Monument
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* Petroglyphs Provincial Park, north of Peterborough, Ontario
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* Petroglyph Provincial Park, Nanaimo, British Columbia, Canada [http://www.britishcolumbia.com/ParksAndTrails/Parks/details/?ID=450]
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* Sedona, Arizona
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* Sloan Canyon National Conservation Area, Nevada
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* South Mountain Park, Arizona
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* St John, USVI
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* Three Rivers Petroglyphs, New Mexico [http://www.desertusa.com/mag98/mar/poi/du_3rivers.html]
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* West Virginia glyphs
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* Writing Rock State Historical Site, North Dakota
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* Writing-on-Stone Provincial Park, East of Milk River, Alberta
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* White Tank Mountain Regional Park, Waddell, Arizona
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* Pete's creek Belfast Lassen county California BLM (Shamans cave with solar calender)
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* Anza-Borrego State Park California Way off Highway 52 (mortar holes too)
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* Shuswap Lake Provincial Parks, BC
  
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<!-- 9. Describe the use of seashells by the Indians. -->
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'''Wampum''' is a string of white shell beads fashioned from the North Atlantic channeled whelk shell, and was used by Native Americans who regarded it as a sacred or trade representative of the value of the artist's work. Wampum was also used for engagement, marriage, and betrothal agreements, as well as for ceremony and condolence ceremonies.
  
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Although in principle it is possible to follow a trail by simply looking for one sign after the other, this may prove so time-consuming that the tracker will never catch up with the quarry. Instead, trackers should place themselves in the position of their quarry in order to anticipate the route it may have taken. They will thereby be able to decide in advance where they can expect to find signs and thus not waste time looking for them.
 
  
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Trackers will often look for spoor in obvious places such as openings between bushes, where the animal would most likely have moved. In thick bushes they will look for the most accessible throughways. Where the spoor crosses an open clearing, they will look in the general direction for access ways on the other side of the clearing. If the animal was moving from shade to shade, they will look for spoor in the shade ahead. If their quarry has consistently moved in a general direction, it may be possible to follow the most likely route by focusing on the terrain, and to look for signs of spoor only occasionally. They must, however, always be alert for an abrupt change in direction.  
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Shells were also used for jewellery, as weapons, and for decoration of tipis, clothing and objects such as bags, backrests and ownership sticks.
  
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Animals usually make use of a network of paths to move from one locality to another. If it is clear that an animal was using a particular path, this can simply be followed up to the point where it forks, or to where the animal has left the path. Where one of several paths may have been used, trackers must of course determine which path that specific animal used. This may not always be easy, since many animals often use the same paths.
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<!-- 10. Name at least ten materials used in making Indian arts and crafts. -->
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# Leather
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# Fur
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# Feathers
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# Hair
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# Antler
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# Bone
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# Shell
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# Wood
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# Bark
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# Yucca
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# Gourd
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# Rush
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# Stone/Vermillion
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# Clay
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# Copper
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# Gold
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# Silver
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# Torquoise
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# Sinew
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# Hooves
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# Stomach
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# Bladder
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# Prickley Pear Cactus
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# Red & Yellow Cedar
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# Brains,ash,urine
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# Corn husks
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# Tendons
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# Soap plant
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# Moss
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# Pipestone
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# Raw hide
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# Flint
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# Obsidian
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# Turtle shell
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# Grass
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# Cattail leaves
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# Pitch (glue)
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# Char coal
  
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In areas of high animal densities that have much-used animal paths which interlink, it may seem impossible to follow tracks. However, once tracks have been located on an animal path, it is often possible to follow the path even though no further tracks are seen. By looking to either side of the path, one can establish if the animal has moved away from the path, and then follow the new trail.  
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<!-- 11. Make a craft item, using any of the materials named in requirement ten. -->
  
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In difficult terrain, where signs are sparse, trackers may have to rely extensively on anticipating the animal's movements. In order to move fast enough to overtake the animal, one may not be able to detect all the signs. Trackers sometimes identify themselves with the animal to such an extent that they follow an imaginary route which they think the animal would most likely have taken, only confirming their expectations with occasional signs.  
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Stay away from projects like the very popular "dreamcatchers" as the purpose of these is to act as a protective charm to ward off evil spirits. This is contrary to Adventist teachings, and so should not be taught by an Adventist church organization, even if it is explained to the children. Do not set them down this path.
  
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When trackers come to hard, stony ground, where tracks are virtually impossible to discern, apart from the odd small pebble that has been overturned, they may move around the patch of hard ground in order to find the spoor in softer ground.  
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Native Americans were masters of many crafts which Pathfinders might enjoy learning. One possibility for meeting this requirement is to make a pair of moccasins.
  
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Should the trackers lose the spoor, they should first search obvious places for signs, choosing several likely access ways through the bush in the general direction of movement. When several trackers work together, they can simply fan out and quarter the ground until one of them finds it. An experienced tracker may be able to predict more or less where the animal was going, and will not waste time in one spot looking for signs, but rather look for it further ahead.
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{{:AY Honors/Make moccasins}}
  
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Knowledge of the terrain and animal behavior allows trackers to save valuable time by predicting the animal's movements. Once the general direction of movement is established and it is known that an animal path, river or any other natural boundary lies ahead, they can leave the spoor and move to these places, cutting across the trail by sweeping back and forth across the predicted direction in order to pick up tracks a considerable distance ahead.  
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Be sure to look into the [[AY Honors/Leather Craft|Leather Craft]] and [[AY Honors/Pioneering|Pioneering]] honors if you choose to make moccasins, as making moccasins meet a requirement in each of these.
  
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To be able to anticipate and predict the movements of an animal, trackers must know the animal and its environment so well that they can identify themselves with that animal. They must be able to visualize how the animal was moving around, and place themselves in its position.If the animal was moving in a straight line at a steady pace, and it is known that there is a waterhole or a pan further ahead, trackers should leave the spoor to look for signs of it at the waterhole or pan. While feeding, an animal will usually move into the wind, going from one bush to another. If the trackers know the animal's favored food, and know moreover how they generally move, they need not follow its zigzag path, but leave the spoor at places, moving in a straight course to save time, and pick up the spoor further on.  
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If moccasins do not appeal to you, you could try your hand at beadwork:
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* http://www.guidetobeadwork.com/book/index.html
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You can also decorate your moccasins with beadwork.
  
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Since signs may be fractional or partly obliterated, it may not always be possible to make a complete reconstruction of the animal's movements and activities on the basis of spoor evidence alone. Trackers may therefore have to create a working hypothesis in which spoor evidence is supplemented with hypothetical assumptions based not only on their knowledge of animal behavior, but also on their creative ability to solve new problems and discover new information. The working hypothesis is often a reconstruction of what the animal was doing, how fast it was moving, when it was there, where it was going to and where it might be at that time. Such a working hypothesis enables the trackers to predict the animal's movements. As new information is gathered, they may have to revise their working hypothesis, creating a better reconstruction of the animal's activities. Anticipating and predicting an animal's movements, therefore, involves a continuous process of problem-solving, creating new hypotheses and discovering new information.
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Or perhaps you would enjoy pottery (see the [[AY Honors/Pottery|Pottery]] honor for details) or some other craft.
  
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==Stealth==
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Another possible project is to make a bowl from birch bark (if it grows in your area).
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{{#widget:YouTube|id=eS8Qk2asAdk}}
  
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In order to come close to an animal, trackers must remain undetected not only by the animal, but also by other animals that may alert it. Moving as quietly as possible, trackers will avoid stepping on dry leaves and twigs, and take great care when moving through dry grass.
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==Historical Note== <!--T:27-->
  
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If the trackers are in close proximity to the animal, it is important that they remain downwind of it, that is, in a position where the wind is blowing away from the animal in the direction of the tracker. They must never be in a position where their scent could be carried in the wind towards the animal and thereby alert it. It is also important that the animal does not have the opportunity to cross their tracks, since the lingering human scent will alert it. Most animals prefer to keep the wind in their faces when traveling so that they can scent danger ahead of them. Trackers will therefore usually be downwind from them as they approach the animals from behind. The wind direction may, however, have changed. If the wind direction is unfavorable, the trackers may have to leave the spoor to search for their quarry from the downwind side.  
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This honor used to be called Indian Lore but the name has been updated.
  
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As the trackers get closer to the animal, they must make sure that they see it before it sees them. Some trackers maintain that an animal keeps looking back down its own trail, always on the alert for danger coming from behind. When the spoor is very fresh, trackers may have to leave the spoor so that the animal does not see them first. Animals usually rest facing downwind, so that they can see danger approaching from the downwind side, while they can smell danger coming from behind them. An animal may also double back on its spoor and circle downwind before settling down to rest. A predator following its trail will move past the resting animal on the upwind side before realizing that the animal had doubled back, and the resting animal will smell the predator in time to make its escape.
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==References== <!--T:29-->
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* http://www.oregonpioneers.com/indian.htm
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When stalking an animal, trackers use the cover of bushes, going down on their hands and knees where necessary. In long grass they go down on their stomachs pulling themselves forward with their elbows. The most important thing is not to attract attention by sudden movements. Trackers should take their time, moving slowly when the animal is not looking, and keeping still when the animal is looking in their direction. When stalking an animal, trackers must also be careful not to disturb other animals. A disturbed animal will give its alarm signal, thereby alerting all animals in the vicinity, including the animal being tracked down.
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* http://www.nativetech.org/brchbark/index.html
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* http://www.desertusa.com/flora.html
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Text from The Art of Tracking: The Origin of Science, by Louis Liebenberg, with permission from the author
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==Further reading==
 
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*Brown, T. (1983) ''Tom Brown's Field Guide to Nature Observation and Tracking''. New York: Berkley Books
 
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*Brown, T. (1999) ''The Science and Art of Tracking''. New York: Berkley Books
 
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*Elbroch, M. (2003) ''Mammal Tracks & Sign: A Guide to North American Species"'' Mechanicsburg: Stackpole Books.
 
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*Halfpenny, J. (1986) ''A Field Guide to Mammal Tracking''. Boulder: Johnson Books.
 
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*Liebenberg, L.W. (1990) ''The Art of Tracking: The Origin of Science''. Cape Town: David Philip.
 
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*Murie, O. & Elbroch, M. (2005) ''Peterson Field Guide to Animal Tracks''. New York: Houghton Mifflin.
 
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*Rezendes, P. (1992) ''Tracking & the Art of Seeing''. Vermont: Camden House Publishing.
 
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==See also==
 
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*[[Tracking (dog)]], the action of a dog following a scent trail.
 
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*[[Hunter-gatherer]]
 
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*[[Songlines]]
 
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*[[Shadow Wolves]]
 
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*[[Ian Maxwell (tracker)]]
 
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== External links ==
 
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*[http://www.woodsmoke.uk.com Woodsmoke - UK Wilderness Bushcraft School for courses on wildlife tracking skills and techniques]
 
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*[http://www.cybertracker.org/ CyberTracker Conservation]
 
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*[http://www.trackerschool.com Tom Brown, Jr.'s Tracker School, NJ]
 
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*[http://www.onpointtactical.com/ On Point Tactical: Military Tracking & Search & Rescue Training]
 
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*[http://www.wildlifetrackers.com/markelbroch/ Mark Elbroch Biography @ WildlifeTrackers.Com]
 
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*[http://www.trackersnw.com TrackersNW]
 
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*[http://www.keepingtrack.org Citizen supported wildlife monitoring: founded by Susan Morse]
 
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[[Category:Hunting]]
 

Latest revision as of 16:11, 14 July 2022

Other languages:
English • ‎español
Native American Lore

Skill Level

1

Year

1944

Version

05.12.2024

Approval authority

General Conference

Native American Lore AY Honor.png
Native American Lore
Arts, Crafts and Hobbies
Skill Level
123
Approval authority
General Conference
Year of Introduction
1944
See also
Artisan Master Award
Native American Lore - Advanced


1

Name five uses made of natural materials by the Northwest Indians.


Vermilion
Vermilion was used as a red pigment.
Cedar
Cedar planks were used for building longhouses. Red and yellow cedar was also used for totem poles, ceremonial masks, rattles, food containers, bentwood boxes, spoons, spindles, hats, capes, effigies, and dugout canoes.
Rush
Mats, skirts, hats, rattles, baskets, temporary dwellings were made from rush (tules).
Dog & Mountain Sheep hair
Hair from a wooly dog bred by these peoples for this purpose, or mountain sheep was combined with cedar bark and spun into yarn, which was then woven into blankets. They also used down feathers from ducks and geese.
Buffalo
The inland tribes made tipis, clothing, bags and pouches, clothing, backrests, pictographs, parfletches, drums, rattles, moccasins, buffalo robes, padding out of the hides. Glue, needles & thread out of the sinew. Cooking pots from the stomach, rattles from hooves, brain tanning produces a high quality leather.


2

Name five uses made of the yucca plant by the Southwest Indians.


Food
The flowers, young stalk, and some parts of the fruit of the yucca were a staple of the southwest diet.
Cordage
The fibers of the yucca plant leaves were spun into rope. This rope was in turn used for many things including sandals, belts, rope ladders, and fishnets.
Paintbrush
The fibers of the yucca leaves were chewed or pounded into a fine fringe and used as a paintbrush for decorating pottery.
Shampoo
The roots of the yucca plant were pounded and whipped into cold water to make suds. Being that Yucca is in the lily order (Liliales) it has a bulb type "root" that often sits on top of the ground. (Soap plant is different from the Yucca and can be used to wash the finest linens and silks.)
Basketry
The leaves of the yucca plant were woven into baskets.


3

Name five uses made of the birch tree by the Eastern Woodland Indians.


The bark of the Birch tree, especially the Paper Birch, were used for making the outer covering of their canoes. Bark was also used for making bowls and tipis. The bark contains a resinous oil and peels into papery-thin strips which ignite easily with even the slightest spark, and thus, the bark was also used as tinder. The wood of the birch contains the same resinous oil, and burns even when wet. It was therefore used as firewood. Birch bark was also used for making torches which they used for night fishing.

The bark was also used for brewing a wintergreen tea high in vitamin C. Fans were also manufactured, and were used both for creating a cool breeze and for fanning fires. Birch bark was also used for making armguards and quivers for archery, rattles, and for wrapping food. The trees were tapped for their sap in the spring and used as a beverage or made into birch syrup, much as maple sap is made into maple syrup.


4

Know 15 plant foods introduced to us by the Indians. Include four plant names used today.


Squash, corn, and beans were known as the "Three Sisters" by Native Americans. The Three Sisters were the three main indigenous plants used for agriculture. These were usually planted together, with the cornstalk providing support for the climbing beans (pinto, kidney, navy, black, pink, cranberry beans, etc.), and shade for the squash. The squash vines provided ground cover to limit weeds and deter animals. The beans provided nitrogen fixing for all three crops.

Native Americans ate from about 1000 different species of plants. Now grocery stores sell food items made from about 100 species of plants. However the 1000 species do not all grow in the same area. Go to http://plants.usda.gov and see plant range maps of every known plant in North America.

The plant foods in the list below were introduced by the Native Americans. Items in bold are known to have retained their Native American names.

Agave

Achiote
Avocado
Bay leaf (Umbellularia californica)
Blueberry (Vaccinium sp)
Brazil nut
Bell pepper
Black Walnuts (Juglans sp.)
Cashew
Cassava
Cherimoya (custard apple)
Chia

 Chicle (chewing gum)

Chili pepper
Cocoa
Cranberry
Green Bean
Guava
Hazelnut (Corylus sp.)
Hickory nut (Carya sp.)
Jerusalem artichoke
Lambs quarters
Maize (corn)
Maple syrup

 Papaya

Pawpaw
Peanut
Pecan
Pineapple
Pine nuts (Pinus sp.)
Pecan (Carya illinoinensis)
Prickly pear
Potato
Pumpkin
Quamash
Quinoa ("keen-wa")

 Squash

Sunflower
Sweet Potato
Tepary bean
Tomato
Vanilla
Wild rice
Wintergreen
Yambean
Yucca

(Word origin of some of these verified at Etymology Online.)


5

Describe Indian stalking and tracking.


In order to come close to an animal, trackers must remain undetected not only by the animal, but also by other animals that may alert it. Moving as quietly as possible, trackers will avoid stepping on dry leaves and twigs, and take great care when moving through dry grass.

If the trackers are in close proximity to the animal, it is important that they remain downwind of it, that is, in a position where the wind is blowing away from the animal in the direction of the tracker. They must never be in a position where their scent could be carried in the wind towards the animal and thereby alert it. It is also important that the animal does not have the opportunity to cross their tracks, since the lingering human scent will alert it. Most animals prefer to keep the wind in their faces when traveling so that they can scent danger ahead of them. Trackers will therefore usually be downwind from them as they approach the animals from behind. The wind direction may, however, have changed. If the wind direction is unfavorable, the trackers may have to leave the spoor (tracks and other indications of an animal's presence) to search for their quarry from the downwind side.

As the trackers get closer to the animal, they must make sure that they see it before it sees them. Some trackers maintain that an animal keeps looking back down its own trail, always on the alert for danger coming from behind. When the spoor is very fresh, trackers may have to leave the spoor so that the animal does not see them first. Animals usually rest facing downwind, so that they can see danger approaching from the downwind side, while they can smell danger coming from behind them. An animal may also double back on its spoor and circle downwind before settling down to rest. A predator following its trail will move past the resting animal on the upwind side before realizing that the animal had doubled back, and the resting animal will smell the predator in time to make its escape.

When stalking an animal, trackers use the cover of bushes, going down on their hands and knees where necessary. In long grass they go down on their stomachs pulling themselves forward with their elbows. The most important thing is not to attract attention by sudden movements. Trackers should take their time, moving slowly when the animal is not looking, and keeping still when the animal is looking in their direction. When stalking an animal, trackers must also be careful not to disturb other animals. A disturbed animal will give its alarm signal, thereby alerting all animals in the vicinity, including the animal being tracked down.

Text from The Art of Tracking: The Origin of Science, by Louis Liebenberg, with permission from the author. Taken from Wikipedia:Tracking (hunting)



6

Name five rocks and/or minerals and uses made of them by the Indians.


  • Obsidian arrowhead

  • Pottery

  • Turquoise pendant

  • Turquoise and argillite tiles

  1. Flint, used for making arrowheads, knives, and other cutting tools.
  2. Obsidian, used the same way as flint.
  3. Clay, used for making pottery and effigies.
  4. Turquoise, used for adornment and ceremonies.
  5. Argillite, used in art.
  6. Vermilion, used as body paint, combined with "glue" was used for pictographs on hides and rawhides.
  7. Soapstone, used for carvings, bowls, cooking slabs, and other objects.
  8. Granite, quartzite, basalt, sandstone, and slate, used for making hammers, axes, adzes, hoes, bowls, vases, and other items.


7

Explain one way in which arrowheads were made by the Indians.


A flintknapper is an individual who shapes flint or other stone through the process of knapping or lithic reduction, to manufacture stone tools.

Knapping is done in a variety of ways depending on the purpose of the final product. For stone tools flint is worked using a fabricator, such as a hammerstone, to remove flakes from a core of tool stone. Stone tools can then be further refined using wood, bone, and antler tools to perform pressure flaking.

There are many different methods of shaping stone into useful tools. The three simplest techniques are mentioned below.

Hard Hammer Precussion

An example of hard hammer percussion.

Hard hammer techniques are used to remove large flakes of stone. Early flintknappers and hobbyists replicating their methods often use cobbles about the size of a baseball or softball of very hard stone, such as quartzite or hard granite. This technique can be used by flintknappers to remove broad flakes that can be made into smaller tools.

Soft Hammer Precussion

An example of soft hammer percussion

Early flintknappers could have used simple hammers made of wood or antler to shape stone tools. Soft hammer techniques are more precise than hard hammer methods of shaping stone. Soft hammer techniques allow a flintknapper to shape a stone into many different kinds of cutting, scraping, and projectile tools.

Pressure Flaking

An example of pressure flaking

Pressure flaking involves removing narrow flakes along the edge of a stone tool. This technique is often used to do detailed thinning and shaping of a stone tool. Pressure flaking involves putting a large amount of force across a region on the edge of the tool and (hopefully) causing a narrow flake to come off of the stone. Modern hobbyists often use pressure flaking tools with a copper or brass tip, but early flintknappers could have used antler tines or a pointed wooden punch.


8

Define pictograph. What are Indian petroglyphs and where can you find them?


A pictograph is an image drawn or painted on a rock face. A petroglyph is an image carved into a rock face. The word comes from the Greek words petro-, meaning "stone" (think of Peter which means rock Matthew 16:18) and glyphein meaning "to carve", and was originally coined in French as pétroglyphe. Petroglyphs are found world-wide, and are often (but not always) associated with prehistoric peoples.

  • Newspaper Rock State Historic Monument, southern Utah, USA

  • Petroglyphs on a Bishop Tuff tableland, eastern California, USA

  • Southern Utah, USA

  • Southern Utah, USA

  • Arches National Park

  • Arizona, USA

  • Columbia River Gorge, Washington, USA

  • Pete's creek Belfast area of Lassen county California, USA

Sites in North America where petroglyphs can be found include:

  • Arches National Park, Utah
  • Capitol Reef National Park, Utah
  • Death Valley National Park, California
  • Dinosaur National Monument, Colorado and Utah
  • Columbia Hills State Park, Washington
  • The Cove Palisades State Park, Oregon
  • Jeffers Petroglyphs, Minnesota
  • Kanopolis State Park, Kansas
  • Kejimkujik National Park, Nova Scotia
  • Lava Beds National Monument, Tule Lake, California
  • Leo Petroglyph, Leo, Ohio[1]
  • Newspaper Rock State Historic Monument, Utah
  • Mina, Nuevo León, Mexico
  • Olympic National Park, Washington
  • Petit Jean State Park, Arkansas
  • Petrified Forest National Park
  • Petroglyph National Monument
  • Petroglyphs Provincial Park, north of Peterborough, Ontario
  • Petroglyph Provincial Park, Nanaimo, British Columbia, Canada [2]
  • Sedona, Arizona
  • Sloan Canyon National Conservation Area, Nevada
  • South Mountain Park, Arizona
  • St John, USVI
  • Three Rivers Petroglyphs, New Mexico [3]
  • West Virginia glyphs
  • Writing Rock State Historical Site, North Dakota
  • Writing-on-Stone Provincial Park, East of Milk River, Alberta
  • White Tank Mountain Regional Park, Waddell, Arizona
  • Pete's creek Belfast Lassen county California BLM (Shamans cave with solar calender)
  • Anza-Borrego State Park California Way off Highway 52 (mortar holes too)
  • Shuswap Lake Provincial Parks, BC


9

Describe the use of seashells by the Indians.


Wampum william penn greaty treaty.jpg


Wampum is a string of white shell beads fashioned from the North Atlantic channeled whelk shell, and was used by Native Americans who regarded it as a sacred or trade representative of the value of the artist's work. Wampum was also used for engagement, marriage, and betrothal agreements, as well as for ceremony and condolence ceremonies.


Shells were also used for jewellery, as weapons, and for decoration of tipis, clothing and objects such as bags, backrests and ownership sticks.


10

Name at least ten materials used in making Indian arts and crafts.


  1. Leather
  2. Fur
  3. Feathers
  4. Hair
  5. Antler
  6. Bone
  7. Shell
  8. Wood
  9. Bark
  10. Yucca
  11. Gourd
  12. Rush
  13. Stone/Vermillion
  14. Clay
  15. Copper
  16. Gold
  17. Silver
  18. Torquoise
  19. Sinew
  20. Hooves
  21. Stomach
  22. Bladder
  23. Prickley Pear Cactus
  24. Red & Yellow Cedar
  25. Brains,ash,urine
  26. Corn husks
  27. Tendons
  28. Soap plant
  29. Moss
  30. Pipestone
  31. Raw hide
  32. Flint
  33. Obsidian
  34. Turtle shell
  35. Grass
  36. Cattail leaves
  37. Pitch (glue)
  38. Char coal


11

Make a craft item, using any of the materials named in requirement ten.


Stay away from projects like the very popular "dreamcatchers" as the purpose of these is to act as a protective charm to ward off evil spirits. This is contrary to Adventist teachings, and so should not be taught by an Adventist church organization, even if it is explained to the children. Do not set them down this path.

Native Americans were masters of many crafts which Pathfinders might enjoy learning. One possibility for meeting this requirement is to make a pair of moccasins.


Patterns for making moccasins can be found on the Internet, including:


Be sure to look into the Leather Craft and Pioneering honors if you choose to make moccasins, as making moccasins meet a requirement in each of these.

If moccasins do not appeal to you, you could try your hand at beadwork:

You can also decorate your moccasins with beadwork.

Or perhaps you would enjoy pottery (see the Pottery honor for details) or some other craft.

Another possible project is to make a bowl from birch bark (if it grows in your area).



Historical Note

This honor used to be called Indian Lore but the name has been updated.

References

Retrieved from "https://wiki.pathfindersonline.org/index.php?title=AY_Honors/Native_American_Lore/Answer_Key&oldid=571131"