AY Honors/Animal Tracking/Answer Key

1. Know ten kinds of tracks, including two kinds of bird tracks. Make plaster casts of five.

To do this, you will need to bring dry plaster of Paris, water, a mixing container, a mixing stick (a paint stirrer will do nicely), and something to make rings out of. Plaster of Paris can be bought either dry, or ready-mixed. It is probably better to get the dry type so that you can mix it on site. It will need to be soupy to make a detailed cast. When you find a suitable track, place a ring around it. The ring can be made from almost anything - a large tin can with the bottom cut out, a paper cup with the bottom removed, a strip of poster board 4 cm wide and taped together at the ends to form a circle, etc. Make sure the ring is larger than the track, and note that some tracks are 15 cm long or more. What a pity it would be to find a huge bear or moose track and not have a large enough ring to cast it! You can also make the cast without a ring, but it is much better if you use one. Once the ring is in place, mix just enough plaster and water to fill the ring up to 2.5 cm deep. It sets quickly, so you will not want to mix up too much at a time. Mix water with the dry plaster and stir it until it is smooth. It should be about the same consistency as pancake batter or apple sauce. Pour it into the ring. Once this is done, you can set out in search of more tracks, or you can wait until the plaster sets. If you set out for more, be sure to come back to collect your cast.

One good way to complete this requirement is by heading to a river right after flooding has receded. There will likely be plenty of easily identifiable kinds of tracks, and the smooth mud makes for excellent casting.

Snow is difficult to cast because it is not nearly as firm as mud. Furthermore, plaster generates heat when it is mixed, and this can easily melt the snow surrounding the track.

Mammals

Raccoon

Raccoon

Track

Scat

Raccoon (Procyon lotor)

Where found: North America

Description:' A raccoon is a nocturnal mammal in the genus Procyon of the Procyonidae family. Raccoons are unusual for their thumbs, which – though not opposable – enable them to open many closed containers such as garbage cans and doors. They are intelligent omnivores with a reputation for being clever and mischievous. Raccoons range from 50 to 100 cm in length (including the tail) and weigh between 4.5 and 16 kg. The raccoon's tail ranges from 20 to 40 cm in length. Male raccoons are generally larger than females. Raccoon tracks look like tiny human hands with four fingers and a thumb. The scat is tubular and rounded on the ends, often containing berry seeds. The scat also commonly holds parasites that can be inhaled, so it should not be handled. (Yeah. Right.)

Usage:

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Rabbits and Hares

Rabbits and Hares

Track

Dropping from a feral rabbit

Rabbits and Hares (Lagomorpha)

Order: Lagomorpha

Where found: Many parts of the world

Description:' There are several types of rabbits that leave this type of track, including the Eastern Cottontail (shown), Desert Hare, New England Cottontail, Pikas, and many others. Note that the prints in the front (top of the diagram) are from the hind legs, while the forefeet leave the two aligned prints in the rear. As a rabbit hops, it throws its forelegs between its hind legs, thus leaving the print as shown.

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Deer

White-tail deer Deer, various species

Caribou

Track

Deer, various species (Odocoileus spp.)

Where found: Deer are widely distributed, and hunted, with indigenous representatives in all continents except Antarctica and Australia, though Africa has only one native species confined to the Atlas Mountains in the northwest of the continent, the Red Deer.

Description:' A deer is a ruminant mammal belonging to the family Cervidae. A number of broadly similar animals from related families within the order Artiodactyla (even-toed ungulates) are often also called deer. Male deer grow and shed new antlers each year. The deer that left the scat depicted above had been eating food high in water content causing the dung to clump together. When the diet consists of drier foods, the dung forms pellets similar to, but smaller than that of the moose (see below).

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Moose

Moose

Print from a female moose.

Each dropping is about 2.5cm long.

Range

Moose (Alces alces)

Where found: Moose typically inhabit boreal and mixed deciduous forests of the Northern Hemisphere in temperate to subarctic climates. In North America, that includes almost all of Canada, most of central and western Alaska, much of New England, the upper Rocky Mountains, Northeastern Minnesota, and Michigan's Upper Peninsula and Isle Royale in Lake Superior. Isolated moose populations have been verified as far south as the mountains of Utah and Colorado.

Description:' Moose (Alces alces) is the North American name for the largest extant species in the deer family. The same animal is called the Elk in Europe. Moose are distinguished by the palmate antlers of the males; other members of the family have antlers with a "twig-like" configuration. On average, an adult moose stands 1.8–2.1 m high at the shoulder. Males weigh 380–535 kg and females weigh 270–360 kg.

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Bear

American Black Bear (Ursus americanus) Bear, various species

Bear, various species (Ursus spp.)

Where found: Although there are only eight living species of bear, they are widespread, appearing in a wide variety of habitats throughout the Northern Hemisphere and partially in the Southern Hemisphere.

Description:' Common characteristics of modern bears include a large body with stocky legs, a long snout, shaggy hair, paws with five nonretractile claws, and a short tail. While the polar bear is mostly carnivorous and the giant panda feeds almost entirely on bamboo, the remaining six species are omnivorous, with largely varied diets including both plants and animals.

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Beaver

Beaver

Trail made by beavers

Beaver tracks in snow, in Ontario. Hind paws approx. 20 cm long.

Beaver (Castor canadensis)

Where found: Native to North America and Europe.

Description:' Beavers are best known for their natural trait of building dams in rivers and streams, and building their homes (known as beaver lodges) in the resulting pond. Beaver sign is usually quite obvious as they cause tremendous changes in their environments, from building ponds and lodges, to cutting down even very large trees, to storing young branches in the mud. In the image shown here, beavers have worn a trail through the brush. Beaver scat is extremely difficult to find, as they have a habit of eliminating in the water. However, they leave more sign than any other creature except man. Beaver dams, lodges, and cut trees are very obvious signs of their presence.

Usage:

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Example: </noinclude>

Muskrat

Muskrat

Muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus)

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Canines

Coyote (Canis latrans) Dogs, wolves, coyotes

Dog

Dogs, wolves, coyotes (Canidae)

Description:' The tracks left by members of the canine family are extremely difficult to tell apart. Their prints consist of four toes and a pad. These animals are unable to retract their claws, so the claw marks usually print.

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Cat

Cat

Cat (Felis silvestris)

Description:' This is, of course, the standard house cat. Note that cats have retractable claws, and they retract them when they walk. You should not find any claw marks in a cat track.

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Lynx

Bobcat/Lynx

Range

Bobcat/Lynx (Lynx spp.)

Description:' Lynx have short tails and characteristic tufts of black hair on the tip of the ears. They have a ruff under the neck, which has black bars (not very visible), resembling a bow tie. They have large paws padded for walking on snow and long whiskers on the face. The body color varies from light brown to grey; and occasionally, is marked with dark brown spots, especially on the limbs. The tracks of the lynx look almost exactly the same as the tracks of the domestic cat, except that they are larger.

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Mouse

Mouse

Mouse (Mus musculus)

Description:' House mice have an adult body length (nose to base of tail) of 7.5–10 cm and a tail length of 5–10 cm; the weight is typically 10–25 g. They vary from light brown to black, with short hair and a light belly. The ears and tail have little hair. The hind feet are short compared to Apodemus mice, only 15–19 mm long; the normal gait is a run with a stride of about 4.5 cm, though they can jump up to 45 cm. The droppings are blackish, about 3 mm long, and have a strong musty smell. The voice is a high-pitched squeak.

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Horse

Horse

Bare hoof prints

Horse scat has a lot of grass and hay fibers.

Horse (Equus caballus)

Where found: Domesticated worldwide

Description:' The horse (Equus caballus) is a large odd-toed ungulate mammal, one of ten living species of the family Equidae. For centuries horses have been one of the most economically important domesticated animals, especially relied upon for farmwork and for transportation. Their importance declined following the introduction of mechanization.

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Cattle

Cattle

Cattle (Bos taurus)

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Pig

Pig

Pig tracks in snow

Wild pig dung

Pig (Sus domestica)

Where found: Domesticated world-wide

Description:' A pig has a snout for a nose, small eyes, and a small tail, which may be curly, kinked, or straight. It has a thick body, short legs, and coarse hair. There are four toes on each foot, with the two large middle toes used for walking. Pigs are omnivores, which means that they consume both plants and animals. Pigs will scavenge and have been known to eat any kind of food, including dead insects, worms, tree bark, rotting carcasses, garbage, and even other pigs. In the wild, they are foraging animals, primarily eating leaves and grasses, roots, fruits and flowers.

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Squirrels and Chipmunks

Gray Squirrel Squirrel

Eastern Chipmunk

Hind print (five toes) of a chipmunk (Tamias striatus).

Squirrel (Sciuridae)

Where found: Sciurids live in almost every habitat from tropical rain forest to semiarid desert, avoiding only the high polar regions and the driest of deserts.

Description:' The hindlimbs of sciurids are generally longer than the forelimbs, and they have four or five toes on each foot. Their paws on their forefeet include a thumb, although this is often poorly developed. The feet of sciurids also have a soft pad on the underside.

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Puma

Mountain Lion, Puma

Cougar track in snow

Range

Mountain Lion, Puma (Puma concolor)

Where found: This large, solitary cat has the greatest range of any wild terrestrial mammal in the Western Hemisphere, extending from Yukon in Canada to the southern Andes of South America. An adaptable, generalist species, the cougar is found in every major New World habitat type.

Description:' A capable stalk-and-ambush predator, the cougar pursues a wide variety of prey. Primary food sources include ungulates such as deer and bighorn sheep, as well as domestic cattle, horses, and sheep, particularly in the northern part of its range, but it hunts species as small as insects and rodents. It prefers habitats with dense underbrush and rocky areas for stalking, but it can live in open areas. The cougar is territorial and persists at low population densities. Individual territory sizes depend on terrain, vegetation, and abundance of prey. While it is a large predator, it is not always the dominant species in its range, as when it competes for prey with animals such as the gray wolf, black bear, and the grizzly bear. It is a reclusive cat and usually avoids people.

Usage:

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Example: </noinclude>

Oposum

Opossum

Opossum (Didelphis virginiana)

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Porcupine

Porcupine

Porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum)

Where found: This animal is usually found in coniferous and mixed forested areas in Canada, Alaska and much of the northern and western United States. They are also found in thicketed areas in shrublands, tundra and deserts as far south as northern Mexico. It makes its den in a hole in a tree or in a rocky area.

Description:' Porcupines are usually dark brown or black in colour, with white highlights. They have a chunky body, a small face, short legs and a short thick tail. Their upper parts are covered with thousands of sharp, barbed hollow spines or quills, which are used for defense. Porcupines do not throw their quills, but the quills detach easily and the barbs make them difficult to remove once lodged in an attacker. The quills are normally flattened against to the body unless the animal is disturbed. The porcupine also swings its quilled tail towards a perceived threat. Porcupines are mainly active at night; on summer days, they often rest in trees. During the summer, they eat twigs, roots, stems, berries and other vegetation. In the winter, they mainly eat conifer needles and tree bark. They do not hibernate but sleep a lot and stay close to their dens in winter. The strength of the porcupine's defense has given it the ability to live a solitary life, unlike many herbivores.

Usage:

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Skunk

Skunk

Skunk (Mephitis mephitis)

Where found: Most of the North American continent north of Mexico

Description:' The Striped Skunk has a black body with a white stripe along each side of its body; the two stripes join into a broader white area at the nape. Its forehead has a narrow white stripe. About the size of a house cat, it weighs 6 to 14 pounds (2.7-6.3 kg) with a body length (excluding the tail) of 13 to 18 inches (33-46 cm). The bushy tail is 7 to 10 inches long (18-25 cm), and sometimes has a white tip. The presence of a Striped Skunk is often first made apparent by its odor. It has well-developed anal scent glands (characteristic of all skunks) that can emit a highly unpleasant odor when the skunk feels threatened by another animal. The skunk is primarily nocturnal. Beginning its search for food shortly after sundown, it feeds on mice, eggs, carrion, insects, grubs, and berries. At sunrise, it retires to its den, which may be in a ground burrow, or beneath a building, boulder, or rock pile. While the male dens by itself, several females may live together. The Striped Skunk does not hibernate.

Usage:

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Example: </noinclude>

Weasels, minks, fishers, and otters

Mink (Mustela vison) Weasels, minks, fishers, and otters

Pine Martin (Martes martes) tracks in snow

Otter scat

Weasels, minks, fishers, and otters (Mustelidae)

Where found: Worldwide

Description:' ;Mink: Their long slim body is covered in glossy, thick dark brown or black fur with a white patch under the chin. They have short legs with partially webbed feet, which make them excellent swimmers. They can be found in wooded areas and fields near streams and lakes. They dig burrows in river banks or take over dens abandoned by other animals. They feed on small mammals, fish, crayfish, frogs and other amphibians, also sometimes eating birds, insects and earthworms. These animals are mainly active at night and do not hibernate.

Otter

Otters have a dense layer (1,000 hairs/mm², 650,000 hairs per sq. in) of very soft underfur which, protected by their outer layer of long guard hairs, keeps them dry under water and traps a layer of air to keep them warm.

All otters have long, slim, streamlined bodies of extraordinary grace and flexibility, and short limbs; in most cases they have webbed paws. Most have sharp claws to grasp prey, but the short-clawed otter of southern Asia has only vestigial claws, and two closely-related species of African otter have no claws at all: these species live in the often muddy rivers of Africa and Asia and locate their prey by touch.

Weasels

Weasels vary in length from 15 to 35 centimeters (6 to 14 inches), and usually have a light brown upper coat, white belly and black fur at the tip of the tail; in many species, populations living at high latitudes moult to a white coat with black fur at the tip of the tail in winter. They have long slender bodies, which enable them to follow their prey into burrows. Their tails are typically almost as long as the rest of their bodies. As is typical of small carnivores, weasels have a reputation for cleverness and guile. They also have tails that can be any where from 22-33cm long and they use these to defend the food they get and to claim territory from other weasels.

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Reptiles and Amphibians

Snakes

Garter snake Snake

Shed skin of a snake

Snake (')

Description:' Snakes leave tracks that can be wavy or straight. Their prints are little furrows that are a half inch wide or more, but it may be difficult the recognize them. Snakes shed as they grow, and you can sometimes find their castoff skins.

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Frogs

Lithobates catesbeianus (American Bullfrog) Frogs and Toads

American Toad

Bullfrog track in mud

Frogs and Toads (Anura)

Where found: The distribution of frogs ranges from tropic to subarctic regions, but most species are found in tropical rain forests. Consisting of more than 5,000 species described, they are among the most diverse groups of vertebrates.

Description:' Adult frogs are characterized by long hind legs, a short body, webbed digits, protruding eyes and the absence of a tail. Most frogs have a semi-aquatic lifestyle, but move easily on land by jumping or climbing. They typically lay their eggs in puddles, ponds or lakes; and their larvae, called tadpoles, have gills and develop in water. Adult frogs follow a carnivorous diet, mostly of arthropods, annelids and gastropods. Frogs are most noticeable by their call, which can be widely heard during the night or day, mainly in their mating season.

Usage:

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Turtles

Loggerhead Turtle Turtle

Tracks of a Loggerhead Turtler

Range

Turtle (Testudines)

Description:' Turtles are reptiles of the Order Testudines (all living turtles belong to the crown group Chelonia), most of whose body is shielded by a special bony or cartilaginous shell developed from their ribs. The Order Testudines includes both extant (living) and extinct species.

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Birds

Crow

Crow (')

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Robin

Robin (')

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Pigeon

Pigeon (')

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Heron

Great Blue Heron Heron

Snowy Egret

Heron (')

Description:' The herons are wading birds in the Ardeidae family. Some are called egrets or bitterns instead of herons.

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Herring Gull

Herring Gull (')

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Sand Piper

Sand Piper (')

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Canada Goose

Canada Goose

Range

Canada Goose (Branta canadensis)

Description:' This species is native to North America. It breeds in Canada and the northern United States in a variety of habitats. Its nest is usually located in an elevated area near water, sometimes on a beaver lodge. Its eggs are laid in a shallow depression lined with plant material and down. The Great Lakes region maintains a very large population of Canada Geese.

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Example: </noinclude>

Duck

Duck (')

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Grouse

Black Grouse Grouse

Black Grouse droppings

Grouse (Tetraoninae)

Where found: Grouse inhabit temperate and subarctic regions of the northern hemisphere. Most species are year-round residents, and do not migrate.

Description:' Grouse are a group of birds from the order Galliformes. Often considered a family Tetraonidae, the American Ornithologists' Union and many others include grouse as a subfamily Tetraoninae in the family Phasianidae. These birds feed mainly on vegetation, but also on insects, especially when feeding young. Several of the forest-living species are notable for eating large quantities of conifer needles, which most other vertebrates refuse. In all but one species (the Willow Grouse, called Willow Ptarmigan in America), males are polygamous, and many species have elaborate courtship displays. These heavily built birds have legs feathered to the toes.

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Turkey

Turkey (')

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2. Name at least three things that tracks tell us.

Animal tracks can tell us many things about the animal that made them, including:

1. The species
2. Its direction of travel
3. How fast it was going
4. How large it was
5. How long ago the animal made the tracks.
6. Sometimes tracks can tell the gender of the animal
7. Sometimes tracks can tell us the animal's age.

3. Trail some animal tracks, identify the animal if possible, and tell whether it was running or walking. Measure between the tracks of one animal when running and walking.

Trailing and Identifying

This is a perfect activity for an afternoon hike during a campout. Bring a tape measure, some powdered plaster of Paris, and a mixing bowl so that you can measure the tracks and make casts. You can also bring water, though it is better to keep that for drinking rather than mixing with plaster. You can probably find some water along the way, but just to make sure, you should bring some water for the plaster. You can refill a bottle for plaster making without treating it as long as you make it obvious that it is not fit for drinking (mud is a good indicator).

Instruct your Pathfinders that they are to look for animal tracks along the way. When they find some (or when you do), try to figure out the species by comparing the track to those in a field guide or those depicted in the answers to requirement one. See if you can find more tracks nearby. Which way was the animal moving? How far can you track it?

Walking vs Running

If the tracks are far apart relative to the size of the animal, it was most likely running. Another indicator of running is that the tracks are deeper than those made by a walking creature (running makes the feet strike the ground with greater force).

Measuring Tracks

There is nothing in this requirement to suggest that the tracks of one animal made while running and walking has to be a wild animal, or even that you have to find a set of tracks like these pre-made. If you or a person in your group, or a person you know has a dog, take it to a sandy area and have it walk and run. Then get a tape measure and determine the distance between the tracks.

4. Maintain a tracking station for at least three days by doing the following:

a. Select a flat open space in some quiet place near your camp or home.

Do not select a space too close to your campsite, because you do not want to attract them into your camp. Animals need water, so a really good place to select is around a source of fresh water. River banks, stream banks, near ponds, and the shores of lakes are all good places to find animal tracks. However, the place you select must be quiet. Avoid places that are frequented by people.

b. Smooth out ground, mud, sand, etc.

There may already be some tracks in the area, but you are interested in fresh tracks. Smoothing the ground erases them and allows for fresh prints.

c. Place food out for wildlife.

Another option is to use a salt or mineral block. The type of food you place will affect the type of animals you attract, as will the season. If there is plenty of food available without your "bait," the animals will be suspicious and stay away. However, if they are hungry (as in winter) or if the food you select is irresistable, they will be more likely to come. Sliced apples out of season will attract many types of animals.

d. Check each day for tracks and replenish food when necessary.

When camping, remember to store your food in a place where the animals cannot get to it. Seal it tightly and place it out of the reach of raccoons and bears (both of which are very clever at getting food). Under no circumstances should you store food in a tent - especially in one that people will be sleeping in. A tent poses no barrier to a hungry skunk.

The morning is the best time to check for tracks. Most forest creatures are nocturnal, so in the morning the tracks will be freshest. Also, human visitors are less likely to trample the tracks before you get a chance to observe and if necessary, cast them.

5. Name two animals for each tracking group.

a. Flatfoots

Flatfoots include bears, raccoons, porcupines, and skunks.

b. Toe walkers

Toe walkers include dogs, cats, lynxes, wolves, and coyotes.

c. Toenail walkers

Toenail walkers include deer, antelope, moose, pigs, cattle, and horses. Basically, any hoofed animal is a toe walker.

d. Bounders or long hindleggers

These include rabbits, squirrels, mice, and rats.

6. Name four signs of the presence of mammals.

Animals leave many indications that they were present. These are collectively called sign. Sign includes:

Tracks

Not only footprints, but marks left on the ground by the tail or by other body parts. Beavers and rats both leave tail marks on the ground.

Scat

Scat is another word for animal droppings or manure.

Fur and antlers

Animals may leave bits of fur behind if it gets caught in a tree's bark, or in thorns. In the fall deer drop antlers.

Cuttings

Cuttings are things such as acorn shells which have been nibbled on. Deer and squirrel often leave them behind.

Scratches on trees

Bears, members of the cat family, and other predators will sharpen their claws on tree trunks. Sometimes they will do this to mark their territory.

Scent Posts

Many animals mark their territory by urinating on trees or other prominent items. If you are walking through the woods and smell a strong musky odor, look around — you may find other sign.

Carcasses

Once a predator has had its fill of a kill, it will leave the carcass. Some animals will guard their carcasses though so they can feed on them again after they've digested some of the previous meal, so be careful if you find one.

7. Distinguish between rabbit and squirrel tracks, and between dog and cat family tracks.

Rabbit vs Squirrel Tracks

Rabbits leave a distinctive pattern when the bound along. The front feet are thrown between the hind feet, but one of them is almost invariably thrown farther back, and the two forefeet often print one behind the other (though sometimes they print side-by-side). A rabbit's hind feet leave larger oval-shaped prints about the size of a man's thumbprint. Since they use the hind feet rather than their forefeet to leap forward, they will push out some material behind them. It may be difficult to make out individual toes in a rabbit print.

Squirrels are also bounders, and like the rabbit, they throw both forefeet between their hind feet. But unlike the rabbit, the squirrel's forefeet generally print side-by-side. The hind feet should print five toes (four finger-like and one thumb-like) and no claws. The forefeet should print only four toes.

In general, a rabbit's pads are shaped like an oval while a squirrel's pads are shaped like a human hand.

Dog vs Cat Tracks

Unlike dogs, cats can retract their claws, and they do so when walking. Therefore, you should expect to find claw marks present in dog tracks, but absent in cat tracks. In general dogs tracks are larger than cat tracks, but you cannot rely on this alone, as there are some very small dogs and some very large cats.

8. Name two groups of animals (mammals, birds, insects, etc.) that leave tracks or scent trails that another of their kind can follow.

Some species of mammal and some species of insect leave scent trails to communicate with others of their species. Canines, cats, deer, moose, and others will mark their territory with urine.

Ants lay down pheromone trails that lead to food sources. If you have ever seen a column of ants scurrying about in single file, you can be sure they are following a scent trail.

9. Name two birds for each of the following type of tracks:

a. Hopping

Most perching bird (passerines) hop, though many can both hop and walk (such as ravens, blackbirds, and robins). Jays, sparrows, cardinals, titmice, nuthatches, finches, and many others hop.

b. Walking

Walking birds include crows, most waterfowl and shore birds (sandpipers, egrets, herons, etc), and most game birds (wild turkeys, geese, ducks, grouse, doves, pigeons, etc).

10. Besides tracks, give two other signs of the presence of birds.

• Feathers
• Droppings
• Nests
• Birdsongs (if you can hear them, they must be present!)
• Eggs or eggshells
• Pellets: Birds of prey regurgitate the indigestible portions of their meals. Birds have no teeth so they rip their prey apart with their beaks and swallow large chunks at a time. Then they digest the soft portions (such as meat) leaving the hair and bones behind to collect into pellets. They cough up these pellets which can be found by the astute observer.

References

• The Complete Tracker by Len McDougall, 1997. ISBN 156731-326-4