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| − | '''Australian Aboriginal [[kinship]]''' refers to the system of [[law]] governing social interaction, particularly [[marriage]], in traditional Aboriginal culture. It is an integral part of the culture of every [[List of Indigenous Australian group names|Aboriginal group]] across Australia. | + | A '''message stick''' is a form of [[communication]] traditionally used by [[Indigenous Australians]]. It is usually a solid piece of wood, around 20–30cm in length, etched with angular lines and dots. |
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| − | The main element is the division of [[clan]]s within the same language group into ''skin groups'', or [[moiety|moieties]]. In its simplest form, clans are divided into two skin groups. There may be four divisions (see [[Martu (Indigenous Australian)|Martu]]), while more complex systems can be divided into eight (see [[Pintupi]] and below). | + | The Australian national broadcaster, [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC]], calls both its Indigenous [[online]] and [[television]] components ''Message Stick'' in recognition of this [[custom]]. |
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| − | The system dictates who may [[marry]] whom – it is always [[taboo]] to marry into your own skin group – creating strong [[incest]] avoidance laws and strong bonds across [[clan]]s through [[exogamous]] relations. While it can be determined at birth who will marry whom, [[love marriage]]s were not uncommon, so long as they were within the skin system.
| + | Traditionally, message sticks were passed between different clans and [[List of Indigenous Australian group names|language groups]] to establish information and transmit messages. They were often used to invite neighbouring groups to [[corroboree]]s, set-fights and [[marn grook|ball games]]. |
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| − | This system is invaluable, especially during [[drought]] or lack of resources, having [[cousin]]s and skin sisters and brothers in other clans. It also creates obligations to care for those people in their time of need. Even in [[Marn Grook|traditional ball games]], teams were divided along these lines.
| + | [[Alfred Howitt]] wrote of the [[Wurundjeri]] people of the Melbourne area: |
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| − | Each skin group has certain [[totem]]s associated with it. Some Aboriginal groups, such as the [[Yolngu]], include plants, animals and all aspects of the environment, as part of their respective skin groups.
| + | :''The oldest man (Headman) having made such a message stick hands it to the old man nearest to him, who inspects it and, if necessary, adds further marks and gives corresponding instructions. Finally, the stick having passed from one to the other of the old men present is handed to the messenger, who has received his verbal message in conection with it. If any duration of time is connected with the message, or if an [[Australian Aboriginal enumeration|enumeration]] of stages or camps is made, a method is used (see [[Australian Aboriginal enumeration]]) [to explain this].''<ref> "Notes on Australian Message Sticks and Messengers", AW Howitt, FGS, ''Journal of the Anthropological Institute'', pp 317-8, London, 1889, reprinted by Ngarak Press, 1998, ISBN 1875254250</ref> |
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| − | A person of the same skin group, of the same generation, is called "brother" or "sister". There are names for maternal aunts and uncles and different names for paternal aunts and uncles. Additionally, there are strong [[Australian Aboriginal avoidance relationships|avoidance relationships]] that need to be observed based on this system.
| + | They are often commonly called ''[[letters]]'' by [[Indigenous Australians|Aboriginal people]]. They were transmitted by [[mailmen]], who could travel hundreds of kilometres to deliver them. |
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| − | ==Some common kinship terms==
| + | [[Donald Thomson]], recounting his journey to [[Arnhem Land]] after the [[Caledon Bay Crisis]], writes of Wonggu sending a message stick to his sons, at that time in prison, to indicate a calling of a truce. In etched angles, it showed people sitting down together, with Wonggu at the centre, keeping the peace.<ref>*Peterson, Nicholas, ''[[Donald Thomson]] in Arnhem Land'', Melbourne University Press ISBN 0-522-85063-4, pp 80-81.</ref> |
| − | {{main|Australian Aboriginal English}}
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| − | *''Aunty'' and ''uncle'' are used as terms of address for older people, to whom the speaker may not be related.
| + | The student [[newspaper]] of the [[University of New South Wales]] goes by the name ''[[Tharunka]]'', which means message stick in the [[Eora]] language, the language of the original people of the [[Sydney]] area. |
| − | *''Brother'' and ''sister'' include close relatives of the same generation, not just siblings.
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| − | *''Cousin'' includes any relative of one's own generation.
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| − | *The combinations ''cousin-brother'' and ''cousin-sister'' are used to refer to biological cousins.
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| − | *In south-east Queensland, ''daughter'' is used to refer any woman of one's great-grandparents' generation. This is due to the cyclical nature of traditional kinship systems.
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| − | *''Father'' and ''mother'' include any relative of one's parents' generation, such as uncles, aunts, and in-laws.
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| − | *''Grandfather'' and ''grandmother'' can refer to anyone of one's grandparents' generation. ''Grandfather'' can also refer to any respected elderly man, to whom the speaker may not be related.
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| − | *''Poison'' refers to a relation one is obligated to avoid. See ''[[Mother-in-law language]]''.
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| − | *The term ''second'', or ''little bit'' in northern Australia, is used with a distant relative who is described using a close kinship term. For example, one's ''second fathers'' or ''little bit fathers'' are men of one's father's generation not closely related to the speaker. It is contrasted with ''close'', ''near'' or ''true''.
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| − | *A ''skin'' or ''skin group'' are sections which are determined by the skin of a person's parents, and determine who a person is eligible to marry.
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| − | *''Son'' can refer to any male of the next generation, such as nephews.
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| − | | + | ==References== |
| − | The skin group classification is [[cyclical]] in nature, changing with each [[generation]]. Non-Aboriginal people are often confounded to hear Aborigines refer to their great-[[grandmother]] as their [[daughter]], or their great-[[grandaughter]] as their mother. They are actually referring to the fact that those relatives are in the same skin group, as well as acknowledging the cyclical nature of the system.
| + | <div class="references-small"><references /></div> |
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| − | For traditional Aborigines, this system is a major foundation of their existence and way of viewing the world. As such, if a non-Aboriginal person is around their culture for any extended period, they must be [[adoption|adopted]] so they may be assigned a skin name and interact in the "proper way" with the group, knowing whom to avoid, whom to call sister, etc.
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| − | Many Aboriginal groups, particularly in the southeast of Australia, have lost this knowledge due to their [[Stolen generation|forced removal]] to [[mission (station)|mission]]s and [[orphanage|children's homes]], where many language groups mixed with each other, and Aboriginal language and cultural practice was forbidden.
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| − | Below are a few examples of different kinship systems from across Australia:
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| − | ==Systems with two skin groups== | |
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| − | ===Pitjantjatjara===
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| − | The [[Pitjantjatjara]] of northern [[South Australia]] have two [[moiety]] groups:
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| − | :'''''ngana nt arka''''' (lit. we-bone) 'our side'
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| − | :'''''tjanamilytjan''''' (lit. they flesh) 'their side'
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| − | However, they do not use skin names.
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| − | ===Yolŋu===
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| − | For the [[Yolŋu]] of north-east [[Arnhem Land]], life is divided into two skin groups: ''Dhuwa'' and ''Yirritja''. Each of these is represented by people of a number of different groups, each with their own lands, languages and philosophies:
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| − | :::{| class="wikitable"
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| − | |- bgcolor=#efefef
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| − | ! Skin name
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| − | ! Clan groups
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| − | |-
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| − | |'''''Yirritja'''''
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| − | | Gumatj, Gupapuyngu, Wangurri, Ritharrngu, Mangalili,<br/>Munyuku, Madarrpa, Warramiri, Dhalwangu, Liyalanmirri.
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| − | |-
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| − | |'''''Dhuwa'''''
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| − | |Rirratjingu, Galpu, Djambarrpuyngu, Golumala, Marrakulu,<br/>Marrangu, Djapu, Datiwuy, Ngaymil, Djarrwark.
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| − | |}
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| − | A ''Yirritja'' person must always marry a ''Dhuwa'' person and vice versa. If a man or woman is ''Dhuwa'', their mother will be ''Yirritja''.
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| − | Kinship relations are also mapped onto the lands owned by the Yolngu through their [[hereditary]] [[estates]] – so everything is either ''Yirritja'' or ''Dhuwa'' – every fish, stone, river, etc, belongs to one or the other [[moiety]].
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| − | ==Systems with eight skin groups==
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| − | ===Lardiil===
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| − | The [[Lardiil]] of [[Mornington Island]] in the [[Gulf of Carpentaria]] also have eight skin groups, shown here with some of their totems:
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| − | {{sectstub}}
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| − | ::{| class="wikitable"
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| − | |- bgcolor=#efefef
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| − | !Male skin group
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| − | !Totems
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| − | !Can only marry<br/>female skin group
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| − | !Children will be
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| − | |-
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| − | |Ngarrijbalangi
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| − | |''Rainbird, shooting star,<br/>egret''
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| − | |Burrarangi
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| − | |Bangariny
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| − | |-
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| − | |Bangariny
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| − | |''Brown hark, turtle''
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| − | |Yakimarr
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| − | |Ngarrijbalangi
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| − | |-
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| − | |Buranyi
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| − | |''Crane, salt water, <br/>sleeping turtle''
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| − | |Kangal
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| − | |-
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| − | |Balyarriny
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| − | |''Black tiger shark,<br/>sea turtle''
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| − | |Kamarrangi
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| − | |-
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| − | |Burrarangi
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| − | |''Lightning, rough sea,<br/>black dingo''
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| − | |Ngarrijbalangi
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| − | |-
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| − | |Yakimarr
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| − | |Seagull, barramundi,<br/>grey shark
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| − | |Bangariny
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| − | |-
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| − | |Kangal
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| − | |''[[Barramundi]],<br/>grey shark''
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| − | |Buranyi
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| − | |-
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| − | |Kamarrangi
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| − | |''Rock, pelican, [[brolga]],<br/>red dingo''
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| − | |Balyarriny
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| − | |}
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| − | Each Lardiil person belongs to one of these groups. Their paternal [[grandfather]]'s skin group determines their own; so a Balyarriny man or woman will have a Balyarriny grandfather. A Ngarrijbalangi person can only marry a Burrarangi, a Bangariny a Yakimarr, a Buranyi a Kangal and a Balyarriny a Kamarrangi, and vice versa for each.
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| − | Once a person's skin group is known, their relationship to any other Lardiil can be determined. A Ngarrijbalangi is a 'father' to a Bangariny, a 'father-in-law' to a Yakimarr and a 'son' to another Bangariny, either in a social sense or purely through linearship.
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| − | ===Pintupi===
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| − | The [[Pintupi]] of the [[Western Desert (Australia)|Western Desert]] have a complex kinship system, made more so by distinct prefixes for male and female skin names; "Tj" for males, "N" for females. The [[Warlpiri]] system is almost the same:
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| − | :::{| class="wikitable"
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| − | |- bgcolor=#efefef
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| − | !Gender
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| − | !Skin name
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| − | !First marriage</br> preference
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| − | !Children will be
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| − | |-
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| − | |'''Male'''
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| − | |Tjapaltjarri
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| − | |Nakamarra
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| − | |Tjungurrayi, Nungurrayi
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| − | |-
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| − | |'''Female'''
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| − | |Napaltjarri
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| − | |Tjakamarra
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| − | |Tjupurrula, Napurrula
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| − | |-
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| − | |'''Male'''
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| − | |Tjapangati
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| − | |Nampitjinpa
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| − | |Tjapanangka, Napanangka
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| − | |-
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| − | |'''Female'''
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| − | |Napangati
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| − | |Tjampitjinpa
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| − | |Tjangala, Nangala
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| − | |-
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| − | |'''Male'''
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| − | |Tjakamarra
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| − | |Napaltjarri
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| − | |Tjupurrula, Napurrula
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| − | |-
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| − | |'''Female'''
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| − | |Nakamarra
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| − | |Tjapaltjarri
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| − | |Tjungurrayi, Nungurrayi
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| − | |-
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| − | |'''Male'''
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| − | |Tjampitjinpa
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| − | |Napangati
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| − | |Tjangala, Nangala
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| − | |-
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| − | |'''Female'''
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| − | |Nampitjinpa
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| − | |Tjapangati
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| − | |Tjapanangka, Napanangka
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| − | |-
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| − | |'''Male'''
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| − | |Tjapanangka
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| − | |Napurrula
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| − | |Tjapangati, Napangati
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| − | |-
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| − | |'''Female'''
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| − | |Napanangka
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| − | |Tjupurrula
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| − | |Tjakamarra, Nakamarra
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| − | |-
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| − | |'''Male'''
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| − | |Tjungurrayi
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| − | |Nangala
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| − | |Tjapaltjarri, Napaltjarri
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| − | |-
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| − | |'''Female'''
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| − | |Nungurrayi
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| − | |Tjangala
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| − | |Tampitjinpa, Nampitjinpa
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| − | |-
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| − | |'''Male'''
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| − | |Tjupurrula
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| − | |Napanangka
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| − | |Tjakamarra, Nakamarra
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| − | |-
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| − | |'''Female'''
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| − | |Napurrula
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| − | |Tjapanangka
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| − | |Tjapangati, Napangati
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| − | |-
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| − | |'''Male'''
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| − | |Tjangala
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| − | |Nungurrayi
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| − | |Tjampitjinpa, Nampitjinpa
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| − | |-
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| − | |'''Female'''
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| − | |Nangala
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| − | |Tjungarayyi
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| − | |Tjapaltjarri, Napaltjarri
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| − | |}
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| − | Each person therefore has a [[patriline|patrimoiety]] and a [[matriline|matrimoiety]], a father's and a mother's skin group.
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| | ==See also== | | ==See also== |
| − | *[[Australian Aboriginal avoidance relationships]] | + | *[[National Indigenous Times]] Australia's largest circulating Indigenous affairs newspaper |
| − | *[[Australian Aboriginal English]]
| + | *[[Koori Mail]] |
| − | *[[List of Indigenous Australian group names]]
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| − | *[[Noongar classification]]
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| − | *[[Indigenous Australians]]
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| − | *[[Warlpiri#kinship|Warlpiri kinship]] | |
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| − | ==References== | + | ==External links== |
| − | *Binnion, Joan (1979) ''The Lardil People of Mornington Island (Student Handbook)'', Aboriginal Community College, Port Adelaide.
| + | *[http://www.abc.net.au/message/tv/ms/ Message Stick TV ] |
| − | *Hansen, Kenneth C. and Lesley E. Hansen, 1979, ''Pintupi/Luritja kinship'', Alice Springs, NT, Institute for Aboriginal Development.
| + | *[http://www.abc.net.au/message/ Message Stick Internet ] |
| − | *[http://ausanthrop.net/research/kinship/ Ausanthrop kinship tutorial]
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| − | *[http://www.ausanthrop.net/research/kinship/kinship2.php Ausanthrop] | |
| − | *[http://www.clc.org.au/ourculture/kinship.asp Central Land Council] | |
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| − | [[Category:Australian Aboriginal culture|Kinship]] | + | [[Category:Indigenous Australians]] |
| − | [[Category:Anthropology|Australian Aboriginal kinship]] | + | [[Category:Australian Aboriginal culture]] |
| − | [[Category:Sociology|Australian Aboriginal Kinship]] | + | [[Category:Australian Aboriginal terms]] |
| − | [[Category:Indigenous Australians|Kinship]]
| + | [[Category:Communication]] |
| − | [[Category:Marriage|Australian Aboriginal Kinship]]
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| − | [[Category:Australian Aboriginal terms|Kinship]] | |
