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The  word '''Bushfood''' refers to any [[Australia]]n native food, although it is sometimes used with the specific connotation of "food found in the [[Outback]] while living on the land". It is also called '''bush tucker'''. It includes both animal and plant foods native to Australia.
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[[Indigenous Australian]] peoples traditionally classified food sources in a methodical way. Below are a few examples.
  
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More recently the food industry refers to gourmet bushfoods as '''Australian native foods'''.
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==Central Australia==
  
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Examples of Australian native animal foods (meat) include [[kangaroo]], [[emu]] and [[crocodile]]. These meats are not commonly found in Australia today, but may be found in special resturaunts. (update: kangaroo is quite common, being found in many normal supermarkets, and at prices comparable to beef) Other animals, for example the [[Goanna]] and the [[witchetty grub]], were eaten by [[Indigenous Australians|Aboriginal]] Australians and thus qualify as bushfood in every sense of the word. [[Fish]] and [[shellfish]] are culinary features of the Australian coastal communities.
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In [[Central Australia]], people used innovative means to obtain a balanced diet.
  
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Examples of Australian native plant foods include the fruits: [[quandong]] (''Santalum acuminatum''), [[Australian desert raisin]] (''Solanum centrale''), [[muntries]] (''Kunzea pomifera''), [[riberry]] (''Syzygium luehmannii''), Davidson's plum (''[[Davidsonia]]'' spp.), and, [[Finger Lime]] (''Citrus australasica''). Native spices include [[lemon myrtle]] (''Backhousia citriodora''), mountain pepper (''Tasmannia lanceolata''), and, [[aniseed myrtle]] (''Syzygium anisatum''). A popular leafy vegetable is [[warrigal greens]] (''Tetragonia tetragonoides'').
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The food categories, and their [[Arrernte]] names are:
  
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Nuts include [[bunya nut]] (''Araucaria bidwillii''), and the most identifiable bushfood plant harvested and sold in large scale commercial quantities is the [[macadamia]] nut (''Macadamia integrifolia'').
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:{| class="wikitable"
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|- bgcolor=#efefef
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!Arrernte name
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=='''Traditional Aboriginal use'''==
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!Foods
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!Examples
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[[Australian Aborigines]] have eaten  native animal and plant foods for an estimated 60,000 years of human habitation on the Australian continent (''see [[Indigenous Australian food groups]])''.
 
−
 
 
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Various traditional methods of processing and cooking are used. Toxic seeds, such as [[Cycad]] (''Cycas media'') and Moreton Bay Chestnut (''Castanospermum australe'') are processed to remove the toxins and render them safe to eat. Many foods are also baked in the hot campfire coals, or baked for several hours in ground ovens. ‘Paperbark’, the bark of ''Melalauca'' species, is widely used for wrapping food placed in ground ovens. [[Bush bread]] was made by women using many types of seeds, nuts and corms to process a flour or dough to make bread.
 
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Aboriginal traditional native food use was severely impacted by the immigration of non-indigenous people, via displacement from traditional lands, destruction of native habitat, and the introduction of non-native foods.
 
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The recent recognition of the nutritional value of native foods by non-indigenous Australians is introducing native cuisine to white Australians, many for the first time. However, there are intellectual property issues associated with the commercialisation of bushfood.
 
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=='''Colonial use'''==
 
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Bushfoods provided a source of nutrition to the non-indigenous colonial settlers, often supplementing meager rations.  However, bushfoods were often considered to be inferior by colonists  unfamiliar with the new land's food ingredients, generally preferring familiar foods from the homeland.
 
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The only Australian native food developed and cropped on a large scale is the macadamia nut, with the first small-scale commercial plantation being planted in Australia in the 1880s. Subsequently, [[Hawaii]] was where the macadamia was commercially developed to its greatest extent from stock imported from Australia.
 
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=='''Modern use'''==
 
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In the 1970s non-indigenous Australians began to recognise the previously over-looked indigenous aspects of Australia, including native foods. Textbooks like ''Wildfoods In Australia'' by the botanist couple Cribb & Cribb were popular, and later the author [[Tim Low]] published ''Wild Food Plants of Australia''.
 
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TV shows also made use of the bushfood theme. [[Malcolm Douglas]] was one of the first presenters to show how to 'live off the land' in the Australian Outback. But it was probably Major [[Les Hiddins]] who popularised the idea of bush tucker. A retired [[Australian Army]] soldier, he presented a hit TV series called ''Bush Tucker Man'' on the [[Australian Broadcasting Commission|ABC]] TV network in the late 1980s. In the series, Hiddins demonstrated his training and research in combat survival by locating native foodstuffs in the northern Australian Outback.
 
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Bushfood enthusiasts in regional Australia began to assess the culinary and cropping qualities of bushfoods in the early 1980s. This regional research laid the foundations for the development of the modern bushfood industry (see [[bushfood industry history]]).
 
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In the mid-1980s metropolitan bushfood restaurants were using native Australian ingredients in recipes more familiar to modern tastes. This provided the first opportunity for bushfoods to be tried by non-indigenous Australians on a serious [[gourmet]] level, and led to the realisation that many strong-flavoured bushfoods have [[spice]]-like qualities. Some of these bushfood ingredients now feature in modern Australian cuisine, and [[Australian spices]] are being increasingly recognised internationally.
 
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Value-added bushfood products were also developed for the domestic and export market. The raw ingredients are sourced from wild and cultivated sources, with an emphasis on the latter to provide sustainable quantities.
 
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In the last decade, industry groups such as the Southern Bushfood Association, the Queensland Bushfood Association, the Northern Bushfood Association, and many others have been pushing for the introduction of bushfood as genuine cuisine in Australian and international restaurants.
 
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The term "bushfood" is one of several terms describing native Australian food, evolving from the older-style "bushtucker" which was used in the 1970s and 1980s. The word "bushfood" was chosen to reflect the sustainable nature of the industry's products, and to help exporters with product branding. The term "Australian native food" is another term recently coined to create further separation from the more rustic bush connotations. However, the term "bushfood" is still used by many industry workers and the Australian [[Government]] and [[CSIRO]] sources and authors.
 
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=='''Australian native food-plants listed by culinary province'''==
 
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Australian bushfood plants can be divided into several distinct and large regional culinary provinces. Please note, some species listed grow across several climatic boundaries.
 
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−
 
 
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===Top-end===
 
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Monsoonal zone of the Northern Territory, Cape York and Western Australia.
 
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====Fruit====
 
−
{|
 
−
|''Buchanania arborescens''||Little Gooseberry Tree
 
−
|-
 
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|''Citrus gracilis''||Kakadu Lime
 
−
|-
 
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|''Eleocharis'' sp.||Mat-Rush, a traditional staple for [[Yolngu]]
 
−
|-
 
−
|''Ficus racemosa''||Cluster Fig
 
−
|-
 
−
|''Manilkara kaukii''||Wongi
 
−
|-
 
−
|''Melastoma affine''||Blue Tongue
 
−
|-
 
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|''Mimusops elengi''||Tanjong
 
−
|-
 
−
|''Morinda citrifolia''||[[Noni]]
 
−
|-
 
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|''Physalis minima''||Native Gooseberry
 
−
|-
 
−
|''[[Terminalia ferdinandiana]]''||Kakadu Plum
 
−
|-
 
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|''Syzygium suborbiculare''||Lady Apple
 
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|}and others....:)
 
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====Vegetable====
 
−
 
 
−
{|
 
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|''Cycas media''||Cycad palm seeds (Require detoxification: see [[Bush bread]] )
 
−
|-
 
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|''Dioscorea alata'',<br> ''Dioscorea transversa''||Pencil Yam, Long Yam
 
−
|-
 
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|''Dioscorea bulbifera''||Round Yam
 
−
|-
 
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|''Ipomoea aquatica''||Native Kang Kong
 
−
|-
 
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|''Lotus nelumbo''||[[Lotus]]
 
−
|-
 
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|''Nelumbo nucifera''||[[Nelumbo|water lily]]
 
−
|-
 
−
|''Nymphaea macrosperma''||[[Nymphaea|water lily]]
 
−
|}
 
−
 
 
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====Nut====
 
−
{|
 
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|''Semecarpus australiensis''||Austraian Cashew Nut
 
−
|-
 
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|''Terminalia catappa''||Sea Almond
 
−
|}
 
−
 
 
−
====Spice====
 
−
 
 
−
{|
 
−
|''[[Eucalyptus staigeriana]]''||Lemon Ironbark
 
−
|-
 
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|''Melaleuca leucadendron''||Weeping Paperbark
 
−
|-
 
−
|''Ocimum tenuiflorum''||Native Basil
 
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|}
 
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===Central Australia===
 
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Arid and semi-arid zones of the low rainfall interior.
 
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====Fruit====
 
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{|
 
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|''Capparis'' spp.||Native Caper, [[Caperbush]]
 
−
|-
 
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|''[[Capparis mitchelii]]''||Wild orange
 
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|-
 
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|''Capparis spinosa <br>ssp. nummularia''||[[Wild passionfruit]]
 
−
|-
 
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|''[[Carissa lanceolata]]''||Bush plum, Conkerberry
 
−
|-
 
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|''Citrus glauca''||[[Desert Lime]]
 
−
|-
 
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|''Enchylaena tormentosa''||Ruby Saltbush
 
−
|-
 
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|''Ficus platypoda''||Desert Fig
 
−
|-
 
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|''[[Ipomoea costata]]''||Bush potato
 
−
|-
 
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|''Marsdenia australis''||[[Doubah]], [[Bush Banana]]
 
−
|-
 
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|''Owenia acidula''||Emu Apple
 
−
|-
 
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|''Santalum acuminatum''||[[Quandong]]
 
−
|-
 
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|''Santalum lanceolatum''||[[Sandalwood]]
 
−
|-
 
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|''[[Solanum centrale]]''||Akudjura, Australian Desert Raisin, Bush sultana
 
−
|-
 
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|''[[Solanum cleistogarnum]]''||[[Bush tomato]]
 
−
|-
 
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|''[[Solanum ellipticum]]''||[[Bush tomato]]
 
−
|}
 
−
 
 
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====Vegetable====
 
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−
{|
 
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|''Calandrinia balonensis''||Parakeelya
 
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|-
 
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|''Vigna lanceolata''||[[Pencil Yam]]
 
−
|-
 
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|''Lepidium'' spp.||Peppercresses
 
−
|-
 
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|''Portulaca intraterranea''||Large Pigweed
 
−
|}
 
−
 
 
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====Spice====
 
−
 
 
−
{|
 
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|''[[Eucalyptus polybractea]]''||Blue-leaved Mallee
 
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|}
 
−
 
 
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====Seed====
 
−
 
 
−
{|
 
−
|''Acacia aneura''||[[Mulga]]
 
−
|-
 
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|''Acacia colei''||
 
−
|-
 
−
|''Acacia coriacea''||Dogwood
 
−
|-
 
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|''Acacia holosericea''||Strap Wattle
 
−
|-
 
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|''Acacia kempeana''||Witchetty Bush
 
−
|-
 
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|''Acacia murrayana''||
 
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|-
 
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|''Acacia pycantha''||
 
−
|-
 
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|''Acacia retinodes''||
 
−
|-
 
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|''[[Acacia tetragonophylla]]''||Dead finish seed
 
−
|-
 
−
|''[[Acacia victoriae]]''||Gundabluey, Prickly wattle
 
−
|-
 
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|''Brachychiton populneus''||[[Kurrajong]]
 
−
|-
 
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|''Panicum decompositum''||native millet
 
−
|-
 
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|''[[Portulaca oleracea]]''||Pigweed
 
−
|-
 
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|''[[Triodia (plant genus)]]''||commonly known as spinifex
 
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|}
 
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====Insects in gall====
 
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[[Bush coconut]]
 
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[[Mulga apple]]
 
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===Eastern Australia===
 
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Subtropical rainforests of New South Wales to the wet tropics of Northern Queensland.
 
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====Fruit====
 
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−
{|
 
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|''Acronychia acidula''||[[Lemon Aspen]]
 
−
|-
 
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|''Acronychia oblongifolia''||White Aspen
 
−
|-
 
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|''Antidesma bunius''||Herbet River Cherry
 
−
|-
 
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|''Archirhodomyrtus beckleri''||Rose Myrtle
 
−
|-
 
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|''Austromyrtus dulcis''||[[Midyim]]
 
−
|-
 
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|''Carpobrotus glaucescens''||Pigface
 
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|-
 
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|''Citrus australasica''||[[Finger Lime]]
 
−
|-
 
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|''Citrus australis''||Dooja
 
−
|-
 
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|''[[Davidsonia]]'' spp.||Davidson’s Plum
 
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|-
 
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|''Diploglottis campbellii''||Small-leaf Tamarind
 
−
|-
 
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|''[[Eupomatia laurina]]''||Bolwarra
 
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|-
 
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|''Ficus coronata''||Sandpaper Fig
 
 
|-
 
|-
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|''Melodorum leichhardtii''||Zig Zag Vine
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|'''''Kere'''''
 +
|food from animals; [[meat]], fat, [[offal]], blood, eggs
 +
|''Kere arlewatyerre'' ([[goanna]]), ''Kere ulkerte'' ([[perentie]]), ''Kere arntetherrke'' ([[carpet snake]]), ''Kere aherre'' ([[kangaroo]]), ''Kere antenhe'' ([[possum]]), ''Kere inape'' (porcupine ([[echidna]])), ''Kere ankerre'' ([[emu]]).
 
|-
 
|-
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|''Pleiogynium timorense''||Burdekin Plum
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|'''''Merne'''''
 +
|food from plants; [[fruit]], [[vegetables]]
 +
|''Merne atwakeye'' ([[wild orange]]), ''Merne arrutnenge'' ([[wild passionfruit]]), ''Merne pmerlpe'' ([[quandong]]), ''Merne mwanyeme'' ([[bush tomato]]), ''Merne arnweketye'' ([[conkerberry]]), ''Merne alangkwe'' ([[bush banana]]), ''Merne arlatyeye'' ([[pencil yam]]).
 
|-
 
|-
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|''[[Podocarpus elatus]]''||Illawarra Plum
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|'''''Ntange''''' (''Merne ntange'')
 +
|edible seeds
 +
|''Merne ntange ulyawe'' ([[Pigweed]] seed), ''Merne ntange arlepe'' ([[Prickly wattle]] seed), ''Merne ntange artetye'' ([[Mulga]] seed), ''Merne ntange arlketyerre'' ([[Dead finish]] seed). ''<br>(See also: [[seedcakes]])''
 
|-
 
|-
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|''Planchonella australis''||Black Apple
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|'''''Tyape'''''
 +
|edible grubs and insects; [[witchetty grub|witchetties]], [[cicada]]s,
 +
|''Tyape atnyematye'' ([[Witchetty grub]]), ''Tyape ahernenge'' ([[River red gum]] grub), ''Tyape ankerrutne'' ([[Coolibah]] tree grub), ''Tyape tyerraye'' ([[Cicada]]s), ''Tyape ayepe-arenye'' (Tar vine [[caterpillar]]s).
 
|-
 
|-
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|''Rubus hillii''||Broad-leaf Bramble
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|'''''Ngkwarle'''''
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|-
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|honey-like foods; nectar, [[stingless bee|wild honey]], [[lerp (biology)|lerp]]s, gum
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|''Rubus probus''||Atherton Raspberry
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|''Ngkwarle athenge arlperle'' ([[Acacia estrophiolata|Ironwood]] tree gum), ''Ngkwarle alkerampwe'' ([[Mulga]] tree gum, ''Ngkwarle arlperrampwe'' ([[Whitewood]] tree gum, ''Ngkwarle atnyerampwe'' ([[Supplejack]] tree gum), ''Ngkwarle akikarre'' ([[Witchetty bush]] gum), ''Ngkwarle aperarnte'' ([[River Red gum]] honeydew, ''Ngkwarle yerrampe'', ([[Honeyant]]), ''Ngkwarle arwengalkere'' ([[Stingless bee|Native bee honey]]), Ngkwarle untyeyampe ([[Corkwood]] flower nectar).
−
|-
 
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|''Rubus rosifolius''||Rose-leaf Bramble
 
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|-
 
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|''Sambucus australasica''||Yellow Elderberry
 
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|-
 
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|''Syzygium fibrosum''||Fibrous Satinash
 
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|-
 
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|''Syzygium luehmannii''||[[Riberry]]
 
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|-
 
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|''Ximenia americana''||Yellow Plum
 
 
|}
 
|}
  
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====Vegetable====
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Some other category words from [[Arrernte]] that are used in relation to food include:
  
−
{|
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*''Thipe '' fleshy flying creatures; birds (not emus), bats
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|''Apium prostratum''||Sea Celery 
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*''Kwatye'' water in any form, sources of water; water, rain, clouds
−
|-
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*''Arne  '' trees, shrubs, bushes, woody plants, some grasses
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|''Commelina cyanea''||Scurvy Weed
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*''Ure  '' fire, things to do with fire.
−
|-
 
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|''Geitonoplesium cymosum''||Scrambling Lily
 
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|-
 
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|''Tetragonia tetragonoides''||Warrigal Greens
 
−
|-
 
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|''Trachymene incisa''||Wild Parsnip
 
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|}
 
  
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====Spice====
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==Top End==
 +
In the [[Top End]], seafood plays an important part in the diet. The food groups and their [[Yolngu]] names are:
  
−
{|
+
:{| class="wikitable"
−
|''Alpinia coerulea''||Native Ginger
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|- bgcolor=#efefef
−
|-
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|+'''''MARANHU'' (foods)'''
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|''Backhousia citriodora''||[[Lemon Myrtle]]
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!Yolŋu name
 +
!Foods
 
|-
 
|-
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|''Backhousia myrtifolia''||[[Cinnamon Myrtle]]
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|'''''Murnyaŋ'''''' </br>
 +
(plant or vegetable food)</br>
 +
Alternative names: '''''Dhäka<u>d</u>atj; Ŋayaŋay', Buku-bira''''''
 +
|'''''Gonyil'''''</br>
 +
(meat, shellfish, eggs)</br>
 +
Alternative names: '''''Matha-yal, Merrpal'Matha-bira,</br> Ŋä<u>n</u>arr-yal'''''
 
|-
 
|-
−
|''Melaleuca quinquenervia''||Broad-leaf Paperbark
+
|'''1. ''Borum'''''— fruits
 +
|'''1. ''Warrakan''''''— land animals and birds
 
|-
 
|-
−
|''[[Prostanthera incisa]]''||Cut-leaf Mintbush
+
|'''2. ''Guku'''''— bee products
−
|-
+
|'''2. ''Miyapunu'''''— marine mammals
−
|''Syzygium anisatum''||[[aniseed myrtle]]
 
−
|}
 
−
 
 
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====Nut====
 
−
 
 
−
{|
 
−
|''[[Araucaria bidwillii]]''||Bunya Nut
 
 
|-
 
|-
−
|''Athertonia diversifolius''||Atherton Almond
+
|'''3. ''Ŋatha'''''— root foods
 +
|'''3. ''Maranydjalk'''''— rays and [[shark]]s
 
|-
 
|-
−
|''Macadamia integrifolia''||[[Macadamia]] Nut
+
|'''4. ''Manutji Ŋatha'''''— seeds
 +
|'''4. ''Guya'''''— [[fish]]
 
|-
 
|-
−
|''Macadamia tetraphylla''||Bush Nut
+
|'''5. ''Mudhuŋay'''''— [[cycad]] foodstuffs
 +
|'''5. ''Maypal'''''— [[shellfish]], crabs
 
|-
 
|-
−
|''[[Sterculia quadrifida]]''||Peanut Tree
+
|
 +
|'''6. ''Mapu'''''— eggs
 
|}
 
|}
  
−
==See also==
+
The old people would talk about the need to eat from both ''murŋyan''' and ''gonyil'' food groups and the need to supplement their diet with ''gapu'' (fresh water). While this balance was maintained, the people knew they were eating correctly.<ref> Richard Trudgen, below</ref>
−
*[[Bush bread]]
 
−
*[[Bushmeat]], something quite different
 
−
*[[Bush medicine]]
 
−
*[[Indigenous Australian food groups]]
 
  
−
==External links==
+
When the men would come back from the [[magpie goose]] hunt, they would be craving ''murnyaŋ'' foods after having eaten so much meat and eggs. While the women, children and old people back in the camps would be looking forward to ''gonyil'', Magpie goose meat and eggs, after eating so much ''murnyaŋ'''.<ref>Thomson, Donald and Peterson, Nicolas, ''Donald Thomson in Arnhem Land'', [[Miegunyah Press]], 2003, ISBN 052285205, p 158.</ref>
−
*[http://indigenousaustralia.frogandtoad.com.au/bushtucker.html Aboriginal Australia]
 
−
* [http://www.bushfood.net/ Australian Bushfood and Native Medicine Forum]
 
−
* [http://www.bom.gov.au/iwk/walabunnba/wantangka.shtml Aboriginal women's knowledge]
 
−
*CSIRO plant profiles [http://www.cse.csiro.au/research/nativefoods/crops/index.htm]
 
−
* [http://ausbushfoods.com/ Bushfoods Magazine]
 
−
* [http://eataustralia.info Eat Australia]
 
−
* [http://www.bushtucker.com.au/ A Bushfood/Bushtucker resource site]
 
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
−
* Bruneteau, Jean-Paul, ''Tukka, Real Australian Food'', ISBN 0207189668.
+
<references/>
−
* Cherikoff, Vic, ''The Bushfood Handbook'', ISBN 0731669045.
+
*Trudgen, Richard, ''Why Warriors Lie Down and Die'', ARDS, Darwin, 1996, ISBN 0646395874, p 140
−
* Issacs, Jennifer, ''Bushfood'', Weldons, Sydney.
+
*Turner, Margaret-Mary, ''Arrernte Foods, Foods from Central Australia'', IAD Press, Alice Springs, 1994, ISBN 0949659762 pviii
−
* Kersh, Jennice and Raymond, ''Edna's Table'', ISBN 0733605397.
 
−
* Low, Tim, ''Wild Food Plants of Australia'', ISBN 020769306.
 
  
−
[[Category:Bushfood|*]]
+
[[Category:Bushfood]]
−
[[Category:Australian cuisine]]
+
[[Category:Australian Aboriginal culture]]
 
[[Category:Indigenous Australian culture]]
 
[[Category:Indigenous Australian culture]]
−
[[Category:Fauna of Australia]]
+
[[Category:Australian Aboriginal terms]]
−
[[Category:Flora of Australia]]
+
[[Category:Nutrition]]
 +
[[Category:Diets]]

Revision as of 07:24, 6 December 2006

Indigenous Australian peoples traditionally classified food sources in a methodical way. Below are a few examples.

Central Australia

In Central Australia, people used innovative means to obtain a balanced diet.

The food categories, and their Arrernte names are:

Arrernte name Foods Examples
Kere food from animals; meat, fat, offal, blood, eggs Kere arlewatyerre (goanna), Kere ulkerte (perentie), Kere arntetherrke (carpet snake), Kere aherre (kangaroo), Kere antenhe (possum), Kere inape (porcupine (echidna)), Kere ankerre (emu).
Merne food from plants; fruit, vegetables Merne atwakeye (wild orange), Merne arrutnenge (wild passionfruit), Merne pmerlpe (quandong), Merne mwanyeme (bush tomato), Merne arnweketye (conkerberry), Merne alangkwe (bush banana), Merne arlatyeye (pencil yam).
Ntange (Merne ntange) edible seeds Merne ntange ulyawe (Pigweed seed), Merne ntange arlepe (Prickly wattle seed), Merne ntange artetye (Mulga seed), Merne ntange arlketyerre (Dead finish seed).
(See also: seedcakes)
Tyape edible grubs and insects; witchetties, cicadas, Tyape atnyematye (Witchetty grub), Tyape ahernenge (River red gum grub), Tyape ankerrutne (Coolibah tree grub), Tyape tyerraye (Cicadas), Tyape ayepe-arenye (Tar vine caterpillars).
Ngkwarle honey-like foods; nectar, wild honey, lerps, gum Ngkwarle athenge arlperle (Ironwood tree gum), Ngkwarle alkerampwe (Mulga tree gum, Ngkwarle arlperrampwe (Whitewood tree gum, Ngkwarle atnyerampwe (Supplejack tree gum), Ngkwarle akikarre (Witchetty bush gum), Ngkwarle aperarnte (River Red gum honeydew, Ngkwarle yerrampe, (Honeyant), Ngkwarle arwengalkere (Native bee honey), Ngkwarle untyeyampe (Corkwood flower nectar).

Some other category words from Arrernte that are used in relation to food include:

  • Thipe fleshy flying creatures; birds (not emus), bats
  • Kwatye water in any form, sources of water; water, rain, clouds
  • Arne trees, shrubs, bushes, woody plants, some grasses
  • Ure fire, things to do with fire.

Top End

In the Top End, seafood plays an important part in the diet. The food groups and their Yolngu names are:

MARANHU (foods)
Yolŋu name Foods
Murnyaŋ'

(plant or vegetable food)
Alternative names: Dhäkadatj; Ŋayaŋay', Buku-bira'

Gonyil

(meat, shellfish, eggs)
Alternative names: Matha-yal, Merrpal'Matha-bira,
Ŋänarr-yal

1. Borum— fruits 1. Warrakan'— land animals and birds
2. Guku— bee products 2. Miyapunu— marine mammals
3. Ŋatha— root foods 3. Maranydjalk— rays and sharks
4. Manutji Ŋatha— seeds 4. Guya— fish
5. Mudhuŋay— cycad foodstuffs 5. Maypal— shellfish, crabs
6. Mapu— eggs

The old people would talk about the need to eat from both murŋyan' and gonyil food groups and the need to supplement their diet with gapu (fresh water). While this balance was maintained, the people knew they were eating correctly.&

When the men would come back from the magpie goose hunt, they would be craving murnyaŋ foods after having eaten so much meat and eggs. While the women, children and old people back in the camps would be looking forward to gonyil, Magpie goose meat and eggs, after eating so much murnyaŋ'.&

References

  1. ↑ Richard Trudgen, below
  2. ↑ Thomson, Donald and Peterson, Nicolas, Donald Thomson in Arnhem Land, Miegunyah Press, 2003, ISBN 052285205, p 158.
  • Trudgen, Richard, Why Warriors Lie Down and Die, ARDS, Darwin, 1996, ISBN 0646395874, p 140
  • Turner, Margaret-Mary, Arrernte Foods, Foods from Central Australia, IAD Press, Alice Springs, 1994, ISBN 0949659762 pviii
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