Field Guide/Birds/Agelaius phoeniceus

The Red-winged Blackbird, Agelaius phoeniceus, is a passerine bird of the family Icteridae found in most of North and much of Central America. It breeds from Alaska and Newfoundland south to Florida, the Gulf of Mexico, Mexico and Guatemala, with isolated populations in western El Salvador, northwestern Honduras and northwestern Costa Rica. It may winter as far north as Pennsylvania and British Columbia, but northern populations are generally migratory, moving south to Mexico and the southern United States.

Female

The common name for this species is taken from the mainly black adult male's distinctive red shoulder patches, or "epaulets", which are visible when the bird is flying or displaying. At rest, the male also shows a pale yellow wingbar. The female is blackish-brown and paler below. The female is considerably smaller than the male, at 17-18 cm (7 inches) length and 36 g weight, against his 22-24 cm (9.5 inches) and 64 g. Young birds resemble the female, but are paler below and have buff feather fringes. Both sexes have a sharply pointed bill.

There are a number of subspecies, some of dubious status, but the 'Bicolored Blackbird' A. p. gubernator of California and central Mexico is distinctive. The male lacks the yellow wing patch of the nominate race, and the female is much darker than the female nominate. The taxonomy of this form is little understood, with the relationships between the two isolated Bicolored populations, and between these and Red-winged still unclear.

The Red-winged Blackbird feeds primarily on plant seeds, including weeds and waste grain, but about a quarter of its diet consists of insects, spiders, mollusks and other small animals, considerably more so during breeding season (Srygley & Kingsolver 1998). In season, it eats blueberries, blackberries, and other fruit. These birds can be lured to backyard bird feeders by bread and seed mixtures.

When migrating north, these birds travel in single-sex flocks, and the males usually arrive a few days before the females. Once they have reached the location where they plan to breed, the males stake out territories by singing. They defend their territory aggressively, both against other male Red-winged Blackbirds and against birds they perceive as threatening, including crows, Ospreys, hawks, and even humans.

The call of this species is a throaty check, and the male's song is scratchy oak-a-lee (see below).

Red-winged Blackbirds prefer marshes, but will nest near any body of water. Pairs raise two or three clutches per season, in a new nest for each clutch. The nests are cups of vegetation, and are either built in shrubs or attached to marsh grass. A clutch comprises three to five eggs. These are incubated by the female and hatch in 11-12 days. Red-winged Blackbirds are hatched blind and naked, but are ready to leave the nest ten days after hatching.

Red-winged Blackbirds are polygynous, with territorial males defending up to 10 females. However, females frequently copulate with males other than their social mate and often lay clutches of mixed paternity.

When the breeding season is over, Red-winged Blackbirds gather in huge flocks, sometimes numbering in the millions. In some parts of the United States, they are considered to be pests because these flocks can consume large amounts of cultivated grain or rice. This bird's numbers are declining due to habitat loss and the use of poison to prevent this loss of crops.

Despite the similar names, the Red-winged Blackbird is not related to the European Redwing or the Old World Common Blackbird, which are thrushes (Turdidae).

Gallery

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  Backlit flock.

References

• Template:IUCN2006 Database entry includes justification for why this species is of least concern

• Jaramillo, Alvaro & Burke, Peter (1999): New World Blackbirds. Christopher Helm, London. ISBN 0-7136-4333-1

• Srygley, Robert B. & Kingsolver, Joel G. (1998): Red-wing blackbird reproductive behaviour and the palatability, flight performance, and morphology of temperate pierid butterflies (Colias, Pieris, and Pontia). Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 64(1): 41–55. HTML fulltext

• Stiles, F. Gary & Skutch, Alexander Frank (1989): A guide to the birds of Costa Rica. Comistock, Ithaca. ISBN 0-8014-9600-4

External links

• Red-winged Blackbird videos on the Internet Bird Collection
• Red-winged Blackbird - Cornell Lab for Ornithology
• Red-winged Blackbird - USGS Patuxent
• Red-winged Blackbird - South Dakota Birds
• Red-winged Blackbird - eNature.com

Further reading

Note: from 1995 and later.

Book

• Yasukawa, K., and W. A. Searcy. 1995. Red-winged Blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus). In The Birds of North America, No. 184 (A. Poole and F. Gill, eds.). The Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, and The American Ornithologists’ Union, Washington, D.C.

Thesis

• Armstrong MA. Ph.D. (2002). Defenses of red-winged blackbirds against brood parasites and predators: The acquisition of threat recognition and the dynamics of group defense. State University of New York at Binghamton, United States -- New York.

• Clotfelter ED. Ph.D. (1998). Impact of brown-headed cowbird brood parasitism on red-winged blackbirds and factors influencing patterns of parasitism. The University of Wisconsin - Madison, United States -- Wisconsin.

• Dufour KW. Ph.D. (1997). Symmetry, quality, and sexual success in male red-winged blackbirds. Carleton University (Canada), Canada.

• Flemming SP. Ph.D. (1996). Communal roosts and colonies of red-winged blackbirds function as flock formation centres. Queen's University at Kingston (Canada), Canada.

• Furey MA. M.S. (2003). Perch availability and vegetation structure in upland breeding habitat selection by red-winged blackbirds in a floodplain restoration site. University of Missouri - Columbia, United States -- Missouri.

• Glassey BC. Ph.D. (2000). Resource competition among nestling red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus). The University of Manitoba (Canada), Canada.

• Hintz JV. Ph.D. (1997). The hormonal regulation of premigratory fat deposition and winter fattening in red-winged blackbirds. The Union Institute, United States -- Ohio.

• Kren J. Ph.D. (1996). Proximate and ultimate mechanisms of red-winged blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus) responses to interspecific brood parasitism. The University of Nebraska - Lincoln, United States -- Nebraska.

• Pribil S. Ph.D. (1996). Tests of hypotheses for the occurrence of polygyny in territorial birds using the red-winged blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus). University of Ottawa (Canada), Canada.

• Sawin RS. Ph.D. (2002). The influence of male breeding experience on reproductive success in red-winged blackbirds. North Dakota State University, United States -- North Dakota.

• Vierling KT. Ph.D. (1998). Source and sink population dynamics of red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus) in Boulder County, Colorado. University of Colorado at Boulder, United States -- Colorado.

• Zimmerling JR. Ph.D. (2003). Comparative reproductive performance of red-winged blackbirds nesting on sewage lagoons and on natural wetlands in eastern Ontario. The University of Western Ontario (Canada), Canada.

Articles

• Albers PH, Hoffman DJ, Buscemi DM & Melancon MJ. (2003). Effects of the mosquito larvicide GB-1111 on red-winged blackbird embryos. Environmental Pollution. vol 125, no 3. p. 447-451.

• Bishop CA, Koster MD, Chek AA, Hussell DJT & Jock K. (1995). Chlorinated hydrocarbons and mercury in sediments, red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus) and tree swallows (Tachycineta bicolor) from wetlands in the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence River Basin. Environmental Toxicology & Chemistry. vol 14, no 3. p. 491-501.

• Blackwell BF & Dolbeer RA. (2001). Decline of the red-winged blackbird population in Ohio correlated to changes in agriculture (1965-1996). Journal of Wildlife Management. vol 65, no 4. p. 661-667.

• Brunet R, Caza N & Cyr A. (1996). Food intake and circadian rhythms of activity of red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus). A time-course study on the effects of alpha-chloralose and secobarbital. Biological Rhythm Research. vol 27, no 2. p. 227-240.

• Brunet R, Girard C & Cyr A. (1997). Comparative study of the signs of intoxication and changes in activity level of red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus) exposed to dimethoate. Agriculture Ecosystems & Environment. vol 64, no 3. p. 201-209.

• Burford JE, Friedrich TJ & Yasukawa K. (1998). Response to playback of nestling begging in the red-winged blackbird, Agelaius phoeniceus. Animal Behaviour. vol 56, no 3. p. 555-561.

• Clark AB & Lee W-H. (1998). Red-winged blackbird females fail to increase feeding in response to begging call playbacks. Animal Behaviour. vol 56, no 3. p. 563-570.

• Clotfelter ED. (1997). Red-winged blackbird parental investment following brood parasitism by brown-headed cowbirds: Is parentage important?. Behavioral Ecology & Sociobiology. vol 41, no 3. p. 193-201.

• Clotfelter ED. (1998). What cues do brown-headed cowbirds use to locate red-winged blackbird host nests?. Animal Behaviour. vol 55, no 5. p. 1181-1189.

• Clotfelter ED & Yasuka K. (1999). Impact of brood parasitism by Brown-headed Cowbirds on Red-Winged Blackbird reproductive success. Condor. vol 101, no 1. p. 105-114.

• Clotfelter ED & Yasukawa K. (1999). The effect of aggregated nesting on Red-winged Blackbird nest success and brood parasitism by Brown-headed Cowbirds. Condor. vol 101, no 4. p. 729-736.

• Curtis PD, Rowland ED, Jensen PG & Hoffmann MP. (2004). Obstructive non-woven fiber barriers for reducing red-winged blackbird damage to sweet corn. Crop Protection. vol 23, no 9. p. 819-823.

• Edwards S, Messenger E & Yasukawa K. (1999). Do Red-winged Blackbird parents and their nestlings recognize each other?. Journal of Field Ornithology. vol 70, no 3. p. 297-309.

• Edwards SV & Dillon M. (2004). Hitchhiking and recombination in birds: evidence from Mhc-linked and unlinked loci in Red-winged Blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus). Genetical Research. vol 84, no 3. p. 175-192.

• Edwards SV, Gasper J & March M. (1998). Genomics and polymorphism of Agph-DAB1, an Mhc class II B gene in red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus). Molecular Biology & Evolution. vol 15, no 3. p. 236-250.

• Forbes S & Glassey B. (2000). Asymmetric sibling rivalry and nestling growth in red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus). Behavioral Ecology & Sociobiology. vol 48, no 6. p. 413-417.

• Forbes S, Glassey B, Thornton S & Earle L. (2001). The secondary adjustment of clutch size in red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus). Behavioral Ecology & Sociobiology. vol 50, no 1. p. 37-44.

• Garrido O & Kirkconnell A. (1996). Taxonomic status of the Cuban form of the Red-winged blackbird. Wilson Bulletin. vol 108, no 2. p. 372-373.

• Gasper JS, Shiina T, Inoko H & Edwards SV. (2001). Songbird genomics: Analysis of 45 kb upstream of a polymorphic Mhc class II gene in red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus). Genomics. vol 75, no 1-3. p. 26-34.

• Glahn JF & Avery ML. (1999). Use of Poisson distribution to estimate red-winged blackbird mortality from toxic bait application. Abstracts of Papers American Chemical Society. vol 218, no 1-2.

• Glassey B & Forbes S. (2003). Why brown-headed cowbirds do not influence red-winged blackbird parent behaviour. Animal Behaviour. vol 65, no 6. p. 1235-1246.

• Grant ND & Sealy SG. (2002). Selection of red-winged blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus) hosts by the brown-headed cowbird (Molothrus ater). Bird Behavior. vol 15, no 1. p. 21-30.

• Gray EM. (1996). Female control of offspring paternity in a western population of red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus). Behavioral Ecology & Sociobiology. vol 38, no 4. p. 267-278.

• Hanowski JM, Niemi GJ, Lima AR & Regal RR. (1997). Do Mosquito control treatments of wetlands affect red-winged blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus) growth, reproduction, or behavior?. Environmental Toxicology & Chemistry. vol 16, no 5. p. 1014-1019.

• Homan HJ, Linz GM, Engeman RA & Penry LB. (2004). Spring dispersal patterns of red-winged blackbirds, Agelaius phoeniceus, staging in eastern South Dakota. Canadian Field Naturalist. vol 118, no 2. p. 201-209.

• Hovekamp NR. (1996). Intersexual vocal communication in the red-winged blackbird. Journal of Field Ornithology. vol 67, no 3. p. 376-383.

• Knittle CE, Linz GM, Cummings JL, Davis JE, Jr., Johns BE & Besser JF. (1996). Spring migration patterns of male red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus) from two migratory roosts in South Dakota and Minnesota. American Midland Naturalist. vol 136, no 1. p. 134-142.

• Lee H. (1999). Effects of organophosphate insecticide application to the conditioned taste aversion of red-winged blackbirds, Agelaius phoeniceus, Icteridae. Korean Journal of Biological Sciences. vol 3, no 1. p. 41-46.

• Lipar JL & Ketterson ED. (2000). Maternally derived yolk testosterone enhances the development of the hatching muscle in the red-winged blackbird Agelaius phoeniceus. Proceedings of the Royal Society Biological Sciences Series B. vol 267, no 1456. p. 2005-2010.

• Lipar JL, Ketterson ED & Nolan V. (1999). Intraclutch variation in testosterone content of red-winged blackbird eggs. Auk. vol 116, no 1. p. 231-235.

• Lopez A. (2001). Vocal response of male redwing blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus) during simultaneous exposures to digitally remastered conspecific song playback and mounts. Ohio Journal of Science. vol 101, no 1.

• McGraw KJ, Wakamatsu K, Clark AB & Yasukawa K. (2004). Red-winged blackbirds Agelaius phoeniceus use carotenoid and melanin pigments to color their epaulets. Journal of Avian Biology. vol 35, no 6. p. 543-550.

• McMaster DG & Sealy SG. (1998). Red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus) accept prematurely hatching brown-headed cowbirds (Molothrus ater). Bird Behavior. vol 12, no 3-4. p. 67-70.

• Olson JM. (2001). Ontogeny of catabolic and morphological properties of skeletal muscle of the red-winged blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus). Journal of Comparative Physiology B Biochemical Systemic & Environmental Physiology. vol 171, no 7. p. 527-542.

• Olson JM, Ferris DV, Jablonski MS & McNabb FMA. (1995). Thyroid development in relation to the development of endothermy in the red-winged blackbird. American Zoologist. vol 35, no 5.

• Olson JM, McNabb FMA, Jablonski MS & Ferris DV. (1999). Thyroid development in relation to the development of endothermy in the red-winged blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus). General & Comparative Endocrinology. vol 116, no 2. p. 204-212.

• Ozesmi U & Mitsch WJ. (1997). A spatial habitat model for the marsh-breeding red-winged blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus L.) in coastal Lake Erie wetlands. Ecological Modelling. vol 101, no 2-3. p. 139-152.

• Ozesmi U, Tan CO, Ozesmi SL & Robertson RJ. (2006). Generalizability of artificial neural network models in ecological applications: Predicting nest occurrence and breeding success of the red-winged blackbird Agelaius phoeniceus. Ecological Modelling. vol 195(1-2, Sp, p. SI) 94-104, MAY 115 2006.

• Patricelli GL, Dantzker MS & Bradbury JW. (2006). Differences in acoustic directionality in male Red-winged Blackbird vocalizations are related to function in communication. Journal of Ornithology. p. 1) 225-226, AUG 2006.

• Prather JW, Ortega CP & Cruz A. (1999). Aggressive responses of red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus) toward brown-headed cowbirds (Molothrus ater) in areas of recent and long-term sympatry. Bird Behavior. vol 13, no 1. p. 1-7.

• Pribil S. (1998). Reproductive success is a misleading indicator of nest-site preferences in the Red-winged Blackbird. Canadian Journal of Zoology. vol 76, no 12. p. 2227-2234.

• Pribil S. (2000). Experimental evidence for the cost of polygyny in the red-winged blackbird Agelaius phoeniceus. Behaviour. vol 137, no 9. p. 1153-1173.

• Pribil S & Picman J. (1996). Polygyny in the red-winged blackbird: Do females prefer monogamy or polygamy?. Behavioral Ecology & Sociobiology. vol 38, no 3. p. 183-190.

• Reed WL, Turner AM & Sotherland PR. (1999). Consequences of egg-size variation in the Red-winged Blackbird. Auk. vol 116, no 2. p. 549-552.

• Reinert SE. (2006). Avian nesting response to tidal-marsh flooding: Literature review and a case for adaptation in the red-winged blackbird. Studies in Avian Biology. vol 32, p. 77-95.

• Sawin RS, Lutman MW, Linz GM & Bleier WJ. (2003). Predators on Red-winged Blackbird nests in eastern North Dakota. Journal of Field Ornithology. vol 74, no 3. p. 288-292.

• Searcy WA. (1996). Sound-pressure levels and song preferences in female red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus) (Aves, Emberizidae). Ethology. vol 102, no 3. p. 187-196.

• Strausberger BM & Horning ME. (1998). Responses of nesting song sparrows (Melospiza melodia) and red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus) to models of parasitic cowbirds and nonthreatening towhees. Bird Behavior. vol 12, no 3-4. p. 71-78.

• Sullivan H, Linz G, Clark L & Salman M. (2006). West Nile virus antibody prevalence in red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus) from North Dakota, USA (2003-2004). Vector Borne And Zoonotic Diseases. vol 6, no 3. p. 305-309.

• Teti J, Borland M, Lopez A & McLaren G. (2001). Digital recording and analysis of female redwing blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus) vocalizations collected in the field. Ohio Journal of Science. vol 101, no 1.

• Vierling KT. (1999). Habitat quality, population density and habitat-specific productivity of red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus) in Boulder County, Colorado. American Midland Naturalist. vol 142, no 2. p. 401-409.

• Ward D, Lindholm AK & Smith JNM. (1996). Multiple parasitism of the red-winged blackbird: Further experimental evidence of evolutionary lag in a common host of the brown-headed cowbird. Auk. vol 113, no 2. p. 408-413.

• Weatherhead PJ. (2005). Long-term decline in a red-winged blackbird population: ecological causes and sexual selection consequences. Proceedings of the Royal Society Biological Sciences Series B. vol 272, no 1578. p. 2313-2317.

• Westneat DF. (1995). Paternity and paternal behaviour in the red-winged blackbird, Agelaius phoeniceus. Animal Behaviour. vol 49, no 1. p. 21-35.

• Westneat DF, Hasselquist D & Wingfield JC. (2003). Tests of association between the humoral immune response of red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus) and male plumage, testosterone, or reproductive success. Behavioral Ecology & Sociobiology. vol 53, no 5. p. 315-323.

• Williams CL, Homan HJ, Johnston JJ & Linz GM. (2004). Microsatellite variation in red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus). Biochemical Genetics. vol 42, no 1-2. p. 35-41.

• Wohlfeld V. (1999). Red-Winged Blackbird. New Engl Rev-Middlebury Ser. vol 20, no 3. p. 149-149.

• Wolfe MF & Kendall RJ. (1998). Age-dependent toxicity of diazinon and terbufos in European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) and red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus). Environmental Toxicology & Chemistry. vol 17, no 7. p. 1300-1312.