Difference between revisions of "AY Honors/Aboriginal Lore/Answer Key"

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The  word '''Bushfood''' refers to any [[Australia]]n native food, although it sometimes is used with the specific connotation of "food found in the [[Outback]] while living on the land". It is also called '''bushtucker'''. It includes both animal and plant foods native to Australia.
+
'''Australian Aboriginal [[kinship]]''' refers to the system of [[law]] governing social interaction, particularly [[marriage]], in traditional Aboriginal culture. It is an integral part of the culture of every [[List of Indigenous Australian group names|Aboriginal group]] across Australia.
  
−
More recently the food industry refers to gourmet bushfoods as '''Australian native foods'''.
+
The main element is the division of [[clan]]s within the same language group into ''skin groups'', or  [[moiety|moieties]]. The simplest system involves division into two skin groups. There can be four divisions, while more complex systems are divided into eight.
  
−
Examples of Australian native animal foods (meat) include [[kangaroo]], [[emu]] and [[crocodile]]. These meats are not uncommon in Australian restaurants. Other animals, for example the [[Goanna]] and the [[witchetty grub]], were eaten by [[Indigenous Australians|Aboriginal]] Australians and thus qualify as bushfood in every sense of the word. [[Fish]] and [[shellfish]] are culinary features of the Australian coastal communities.
+
The system dicates who may [[marry]] whom – it is always [[taboo]] to marry into your own skin group – creating strong [[incest]] avoidance laws and strong bonds across [[clan]]s through [[exogamous]] relations. While it can be determined at birth who will marry whom, [[love marriage]]s were not uncommon, so long as they were within the skin system. This can prove invaluable during [[drought]] or lack of resources, having [[cousin]]s and skin sisters and brothers in other clans. It also creates obligations to care for those people in their time of need.
  
−
Examples of Australian native plant foods include the fruits: [[quandong]] (''Santalum acuminatum''), [[Australian desert raisin]] (''Solanum centrale''), [[muntries]] (''Kunzea pomifera''), [[riberry]] (''Syzygium luehmannii''), Davidson's plum (''[[Davidsonia]]'' spp.), and, [[Finger Lime]] (''Citrus australasica''). Native spices include [[lemon myrtle]] (''Backhousia citriodora''), mountain pepper (''Tasmannia lanceolata''), and, [[aniseed myrtle]] (''Anetholea anista''). A popular leafy vegetable is [[warrigal greens]] (''Tetragonia tetragonoides'').  
+
Each skin group has certain [[totem]]s associated with it. Some Aboriginal groups, such as the [[Yolngu]], include plants, animals and all aspects of the environment, as part of their respective skin groups.
  
−
Nuts include [[bunya nut]] (''Araucaria bidwillii''), and the most identifiable bushfood plant harvested and sold in large scale commercial quantities is the [[macadamia]] nut (''Macadamia integrifolia'').
+
A person of the same skin group, of the same generation, is called "brother" or "sister". There are also names for maternal aunts and uncles and paternal aunts and uncles. Additionally, there are strong [[avoidance relationships]] that need to be observed based on this system.
  
 +
The skin group classification is [[cyclical]] in nature, changing with each [[generation]]. Non-Aboriginal people are often confounded to hear Aborigines refer to their great-[[grandmother]] as their [[daughter]], or their great-[[grandaughter]] their mother. They are actually referring to the fact that those relatives are in the same skin group.
  
−
=='''Traditional Aboriginal use'''==
+
For traditional Aborigines, this system is a major foundation of their existence and way of viewing the world. As such, if a non-Aboriginal person is around their culture for any extended period, they must be [[adoption|adopted]] so they may be assigned a skin name and interact in the "proper way" with the group, knowing whom to avoid, whom to call sister, etc.
  
−
[[Australian Aborigines]] have eaten  native animal and plant foods for an estimated 60,000 years of human habitation on the Australian continent.  
+
Many Aboriginal groups, particularly in the southeast of Australia, have lost this knowledge due to their [[Stolen generation|forced removal]] to [[mission (station)|mission]]s and [[orphanage|children's homes]], where many language groups mixed with each other, and Aboriginal language was forbidden.
  
−
Various traditional methods of processing and cooking are used. Toxic seeds, such as [[Cycad]] (''Cycas media'') and Moreton Bay Chestnut (''Castanospermum australe'') are processed to remove the toxins and render them safe to eat. Many foods are also baked in the hot campfire coals, or baked for several hours in ground ovens. ‘Paperbark’, the bark of ''Melalauca'' species, is widely used for wrapping food placed in ground ovens. [[Bush bread]] was made by women using many types of seeds, nuts and corms to process a flour or dough to make bread.
+
Below are a few examples of different kinship systems from across Australia:
  
−
Aboriginal traditional native food use was severely impacted by the invasion of non-indigenous people, via displacement from traditional lands, destruction of native habitat, and the introduction of non-native foods.
+
==Systems with two skin groups==
  
−
The recent recognition of the nutritional value of native foods by non-indigenous Australian’s is assisting in a renewal of native cuisine. However, there are intellectual property issues associated with the commercialisation of bushfood.
+
===Pitjantjatjara===
 +
The [[Pitjantjatjara]] of northern [[South Australia]] have two [[moiety]] groups:
  
−
=='''Colonial use'''==
+
:'''''ngana nt arka''''' (lit. we-bone) 'our side'
 +
:'''''tjanamilytjan''''' (lit. they flesh) 'their side'
  
−
Bushfoods provided a source of nutrition to the non-indigenous colonial settlers, often supplementing meager rations.  However, bushfoods were often considered to be inferior by colonists  unfamiliar with the new land's food ingredients, generally preferring familiar foods from the homeland.
+
However, they do not use skin names.
  
−
The only Australian native food developed and cropped on a large scale is the macadamia nut, with the first small-scale commercial plantation being planted in Australia in the 1880s. Subsequently, [[Hawaii]] was where the macadamia was commercially developed to its greatest extent from stock imported from Australia.
+
===Yolŋu===
 +
For the [[Yolŋu]] of north-east [[Arnhem Land]], life is divided into two skin groups: ''Dhuwa'' and ''Yirritja''. Each of these is represented by people of a number of different groups, each with their own lands, languages and philosophies:
  
−
=='''Modern use'''==
+
:::{| class="wikitable"
 +
|- bgcolor=#efefef
 +
! Skin name
 +
! Clan groups
 +
|-
 +
|'''''Yirritja'''''
 +
| Gumatj, Gupapuyngu, Wangurri, Ritharrngu, Mangalili,<br/>Munyuku, Madarrpa, Warramiri, Dhalwangu, Liyalanmirri.
 +
|-
 +
|'''''Dhuwa'''''
 +
|Rirratjingu, Galpu, Djambarrpuyngu, Golumala, Marrakulu,<br/>Marrangu, Djapu, Datiwuy, Ngaymil, Djarrwark.
 +
|}
  
−
In the 1970s non-indigenous Australian’s began to recognize the previously over-looked indigenous aspects of Australia, including native foods. Textbooks like ''Wildfoods In Australia'' by the botanist couple Cribb & Cribb were popular, and later the author [[Tim Low]] published ''Wild Food Plants of Australia''.
+
A ''Yirritja'' person must always marry a ''Dhuwa'' person and vice versa. If a man or woman is ''Dhuwa'', their mother will be ''Yirritja''.
  
−
TV shows also made use of the bushfood theme. [[Malcolm Douglas]] was one of the first presenters to show how to 'live off the land' in the Australian Outback. But it was probably Major [[Les Hiddins]] who popularized the idea of bush tucker. A retired [[Australian Army]] soldier, he presented a hit TV series called ''Bush Tucker Man'' on the [[Australian Broadcasting Commission]] TV network in the late 1980s. In the series, Hiddins demonstrated his training and research in combat survival by locating native foodstuffs in the northern Australian Outback.
+
Kinship relations are also mapped onto the lands owned by the Yolngu through their [[hereditary]] [[estates]] – so everything is either ''Yirritja'' or ''Dhuwa'' – every fish, stone, river, etc, belongs to one or the other [[moiety]].
  
−
Bushfood enthusiasts in regional Australia began to assess the culinary and cropping qualities of bushfoods in the early 1980s. This regional research laid the foundations for the development of the modern bushfood industry (see [[bushfood industry history]]).
+
==Systems with eight skin groups==
  
−
In the mid-1980s metropolitan bushfood restaurants were using native Australian ingredients in recipes more familiar to modern tastes. This provided the first opportunity for bushfoods to be tried by non-indigenous Australian’s on a serious [[gourmet]] level, and lead to the realization that many strong flavored bushfoods have [[spice]]-like qualities. Some of these bushfood ingredients now feature in modern Australian cuisine, and [[Australian spices]] are being increasingly recognized internationally.
+
===Pintupi===
 +
The [[Pintupi]] of the [[Western Desert language|Western Desert]] have a complex kinship system, made more so by distinct prefixes for male and female skin names; "Tj" for males, "N" for females. The [[Warlpiri]] system is almost the same:
  
−
Value-added bushfood products were also developed for the domestic and export market. The raw ingredients are sourced from wild and cultivated sources, with an emphasis on the later to provide sustainable quantities.
+
:::{| class="wikitable"
 +
|- bgcolor=#efefef
 +
!Gender
 +
!Skin name
 +
!Can only mary
 +
!Children will be
 +
|-
 +
|'''Male'''
 +
|Tjapaltjarri
 +
|Nakamarra
 +
|Tjungurrayi, Nungurrayi
 +
|-
 +
|'''Female'''
 +
|Napaltjarri
 +
|Tjakamarra
 +
|Tjupurrula, Napurrula
 +
|-
 +
|'''Male'''
 +
|Tjapangati
 +
|Nampitjinpa
 +
|Tjapanangka, Napanangka
 +
|-
 +
|'''Female'''
 +
|Napangati
 +
|Tjampitjinpa
 +
|Tjangala, Nangala
 +
|-
 +
|'''Male'''
 +
|Tjakamarra
 +
|Napaltjarri
 +
|Tjupurrula, Napurrula
 +
|-
 +
|'''Female'''
 +
|Nakamarra
 +
|Tjapaltjarri
 +
|Tjungurrayi, Nungurrayi
 +
|-
 +
|'''Male'''
 +
|Tjampitjinpa
 +
|Napangati
 +
|Tjangala, Nangala
 +
|-
 +
|'''Female'''
 +
|Nampitjinpa
 +
|Tjapangati
 +
|Tjapanangka, Napangangka
 +
|-
 +
|'''Male'''
 +
|Tjapanangka
 +
|Napurrula
 +
|Tjapangati, Napangati
 +
|-
 +
|'''Female'''
 +
|Napanangka
 +
|Tjupurrula
 +
|Tjakamarra, Nakamarra
 +
|-
 +
|'''Male'''
 +
|Tjungurrayi
 +
|Nangala
 +
|Tjapaltjarri, Napaltjarri
 +
|-
 +
|'''Female'''
 +
|Nungurrayi
 +
|Tjangala
 +
|Tampitjinpa, Nampitjinpa
 +
|-
 +
|'''Male'''
 +
|Tjupurrula
 +
|Napanangka
 +
|Tjakamarra, Nakamarra
 +
|-
 +
|'''Female'''
 +
|Napurrula
 +
|Tjapanangka
 +
|Tjapangati, Napangati
 +
|-
 +
|'''Male'''
 +
|Tjangala
 +
|Nungurrayi
 +
|Tjampitjinpa, Nampitjinpa
 +
|-
 +
|'''Female'''
 +
|Nangala
 +
|Tjungarayyi
 +
|Tjapaltjarri, Napaltjarri
 +
|}
  
−
In the last decade, industry groups such as the Southern Bushfood Association, the Queensland Bushfood Association, the Northern Bushfood Association, and many others have been pushing for the introduction of bushfood as genuine cuisine in Australian and international restaurants.  
+
Each person therefore has a [[patriline|patrimoiety]] and a [[matriline|matrimoiety]], a father's and a mother's skin group.
  
−
The term "bushfood" is one of several terms describing native Australian food, evolving from the older-style "bushtucker" which was used in the 1970s and 1980s. The word "bushfood" was chosen to reflect the sustainable nature of the industry's products, and to help exporters with product branding. The term "Australian native food" is another term recently coined to create further seperation from the more rustic bush conatations. However, the term "bushfood" is still used by many industry workers and the Australian [[Government]] and [[CSIRO]] sources and authors.
+
===Lardiil===
 +
The [[Lardiil]] of [[Mornington Island]] in the [[Gulf of Carpentaria]] also have eight skin groups, shown here with some of their totems:
 +
{{sectstub}}
 +
::{| class="wikitable"
 +
|- bgcolor=#efefef
 +
!Male skin group
 +
!Totems
 +
!Can only mary<br/>female skin group
 +
!Children will be
 +
|-
 +
|Ngarrijbalangi
 +
|''Rainbird, shooting star,<br/>egret''
 +
|Burrarangi
 +
|Bangariny
 +
|-
 +
|Bangariny
 +
|''Brown hark, turtle''
 +
|Yakimarr
 +
|Ngarrijbalangi
 +
|-
 +
|Buranyi
 +
|''Crane, salt water, <br/>sleeping turtle''
 +
|Kangal
 +
|
 +
|-
 +
|Balyarriny
 +
|''Black tiger shark,<br/>sea turtle''
 +
|Kamarrangi
 +
|
 +
|-
 +
|Burrarangi
 +
|''Lightning, rough sea,<br/>black dingo''
 +
|Ngarrijbalangi
 +
|
 +
|-
 +
|Yakimarr
 +
|Seagull, barramundi,<br/>grey shark
 +
|Bangariny
 +
|
 +
|-
 +
|Kangal
 +
|''[[Barramundi]],<br/>grey shark''
 +
|Buranyi
 +
|
 +
|-
 +
|Kamarrangi
 +
|''Rock, pelican, [[brolga]],<br/>red dingo''
 +
|Balyarriny
 +
|
 +
|}
  
−
=='''Australian native food-plants listed by culinary province.'''==
+
Each Lardiil person belongs to one of these groups. Their paternal [[grandfather]]'s skin group determines their own; so a Balyarriny man or woman will have a Balyarriny grandfather. A Ngarrijbalangi person can only marry a Burrarangi, a Bangariny a Yakimarr, a Buranyi a Kangal and a Balyarriny a Kamarrangi, and vice versa for each.
  
−
Australian bushfood plants can be divided into several distinct and large regional culinary provinces. Please note, some species listed grow across several climatic boundaries.
+
Once a person's skin group is known, their relationship to any other Lardiil can be determined. A Ngarrijbalangi is a 'father' to a Bangariny, a 'father-in-law' to a Yakimarr and a 'son' to another Bangariny, either in a social sense or purely through linearship
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
'''Top-end'''
 
−
Monsoonal zone of the Northern Territory, Cape York and Western Australia.
 
−
 
 
−
'''Fruit''':
 
−
 
 
−
''Buchanania arborescens'',     Little Gooseberry Tree
 
−
 
 
−
''Citrus gracilis'',                Kakadu Lime
 
−
 
 
−
''Ficus racemosa'',     Cluster Fig
 
−
 
 
−
''Manilkara kaukii'',                Wongi
 
−
 
 
−
''Melastoma affine'',                Blue Tongue
 
−
 
 
−
''Mimusops elengi''                Tanjong
 
−
 
 
−
''Morinda citrifolia'',     [[Noni]]
 
−
 
 
−
''Physalis minima'',                  Native Gooseberry
 
−
 
 
−
''[[Terminalia ferdinandiana]]'',    Kakadu Plum
 
−
 
−
''Syzygium suborbiculare'',     Lady Apple
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
'''Spice''':
 
−
 
 
−
''[[Eucalyptus staigeriana]]'',    Lemon Ironbark
 
−
 
 
−
''Melaleuca leucadendron'',    Weeping Paperbark
 
−
 
 
−
''Ocimum tenuiflorum'',        Native Basil
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
'''Nut''':
 
−
 
 
−
''Semecarpus australiensis'',        Austraian Cashew Nut
 
−
 
 
−
''Terminalia catappa'',               Sea Almond
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
'''Vegetable''':
 
−
 
 
−
''Dioscorea transversa'',     Pencil Yam
 
−
 
 
−
''Ipomoea aquatica'',                Native Kang Kong
 
−
 
 
−
''Lotus nelumbo'',                    [[Lotus]]
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
'''Central Australia'''
 
−
Arid and semi-arid zones of the low rainfall interior.
 
−
 
 
−
'''Fruit''':
 
−
 
 
−
''Capparis'' spp.,   Native Caper
 
−
 
 
−
''Citrus glauca'',   [[Desert Lime]]
 
−
 
 
−
''Enchylaena tormentosa'',   Ruby Saltbush
 
−
 
 
−
''Ficus platypoda'',   Desert Fig
 
−
 
 
−
''Marsdenia australis'',          Doubah
 
−
 
 
−
''Owenia acidula'',   Emu Apple
 
−
 
 
−
''Santalum acuminatum'',   [[Quandong]]
 
−
 
 
−
''Santalum lanceolatum'',   [[Sandalwood]]
 
−
 
 
−
''[[Solanum centrale]]'',          Akudjura
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
'''Spice''':
 
−
 
 
−
''[[Eucalyptus polybractea]]'',    Blue-leaved Mallee
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
'''Seed''':
 
−
 
 
−
''Acacia aneura'',     [[Mulga]]
 
−
 
 
−
''Acacia colei'',
 
−
 
 
−
''Acacia coriacea'',     Dogwood
 
−
 
 
−
''Acacia holosericea'',     Strap Wattle
 
−
 
 
−
''Acacia kempeana'',     Witchetty Bush
 
−
 
 
−
''Acacia murrayana'',     
 
−
 
 
−
''Acacia pycantha'',
 
−
 
 
−
''Acacia retinodes'', 
 
−
 
 
−
''[[Acacia victoriae]]'',     Gundabluey
 
−
 
 
−
''Brachychiton populneus'',     [[Kurrajong]]
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
'''Vegetable''':
 
−
 
 
−
''Calandrinia balonensis'',     Parakeelya
 
−
 
 
−
''Lepidium'' spp.,     Peppercresses
 
−
 
 
−
''Portulaca intraterranea'',     Large Pigweed.
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
'''Eastern Australia'''
 
−
Subtropical rainforests of New South Wales to the wet tropics of Northern Queensland.
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
'''Fruit''':
 
−
 
 
−
''Acronychia acidula'',     [[Lemon Aspen]]
 
−
 
 
−
''Acronychia oblongifolia'',        White Aspen
 
−
 
 
−
''Antidesma bunius''                Herbet River Cherry
 
−
 
 
−
''Archirhodomyrtus beckleri'',      Rose Myrtle
 
−
 
 
−
''Austromyrtus dulcis'',            [[Midyim]]
 
−
 
 
−
''Carpobrotus glaucescens'',        Pigface
 
−
 
 
−
''Citrus australasica'',     [[Finger Lime]]
 
−
 
 
−
''Citrus australis'',             Dooja
 
−
 
 
−
''[[Davidsonia]]'' spp.,     Davidson’s Plum
 
−
 
 
−
''Diploglottis campbellii'',        Small-leaf Tamarind
 
−
 
 
−
''[[Eupomatia laurina]]'',            Bolwarra
 
−
 
 
−
''Ficus coronata'',     Sandpaper Fig
 
−
 
 
−
''Melodorum leichhardtii'',          Zig Zag Vine
 
−
 
 
−
''Pleiogynium timorense'',     Burdekin Plum
 
−
 
 
−
''[[Podocarpus elatus]]'',          Illawarra Plum
 
−
 
 
−
''Planchonella australis'',          Black Apple
 
−
 
 
−
''Rubus hillii'',                    Broad-leaf Bramble
 
−
 
 
−
''Rubus probus'',                    Atherton Raspberry
 
−
 
 
−
''Rubus rosifolius'',                Rose-leaf Bramble
 
−
 
 
−
''Sambucus australasica'',          Yellow Elderberry
 
−
 
 
−
''Syzygium fibrosum'',              Fibrous Satinash
 
−
 
 
−
''Syzygium luehmannii'',     [[Riberry]]
 
−
 
 
−
''Ximenia americana'',              Yellow Plum
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
'''Spice''':
 
−
 
 
−
''Alpinia coerulea'',                Native Ginger
 
−
 
 
−
''Anetholea anisata'',             Aniseed Myrtle
 
−
 
 
−
''Backhousia citriodora'',     [[Lemon Myrtle]]
 
−
 
 
−
''Backhousia myrtifolia'',     [[Cinnamon Myrtle]]
 
−
 
 
−
''Melaleuca quinquenervia''        Broad-leaf Paperbark
 
−
 
 
−
''[[Prostanthera incisa]]'',     Cut-leaf Mintbush
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
'''Nut''':
 
−
 
 
−
''[[Araucaria bidwillii]]'',   Bunya Nut
 
−
 
 
−
''Athertonia diversifolius'',      Atherton Almond
 
−
 
 
−
''Macadamia integrifolia'',     [[Macadamia]] Nut
 
−
 
 
−
''Macadamia tetraphylla'',     Bush Nut
 
−
 
 
−
''[[Sterculia quadrifida]]'',        Peanut Tree
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
'''Vegetable''':
 
−
 
 
−
''Apium prostratum'',           Sea Celery 
 
−
 
 
−
''Commelina cyanea'',                Scurvy Weed
 
−
 
 
−
''Geitonoplesium cymosum'',          Scrambling Lily
 
−
 
 
−
''Tetragonia tetragonoides'',        Warrigal Greens
 
−
 
 
−
''Trachymene incisa'',     Wild Parsnip.
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
'''Temperate'''
 
−
Warm and cool temperate zones of Tasmania, South Australia, Victoria and the highlands of New South Wales.
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
'''Fruit''':
 
−
 
 
−
''Acrotriche depressa'',             Native Currant
 
−
 
 
−
''Billarderia cymosa'',     Sweet Apple-berry
 
−
 
 
−
''Billarderia longiflora'',     Purple Apple-berry
 
−
 
−
''Billarderia scandens'',     Common Apple-berry
 
−
 
 
−
''Carpobrotus rossii'',     Karkalla
 
−
 
 
−
''Eustrephus latifolius'',     [[Wombat berry]]
 
−
 
 
−
''[[Exocarpus cupressiformis]]'',    Native Cherry
 
−
 
 
−
''Gaultheria hispida'',              Snow Berry
 
−
 
 
−
''Kunzea pomifera'',     [[Muntries]]
 
−
 
 
−
''Rubus parvifolius'',     Pink-flowered Native Raspberry
 
−
 
 
−
''Sambucus gaudichaudiana'',        White Elderberry
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
'''Seed''':
 
−
 
 
−
''Acacia longifolia'',     Golden Rods
 
−
 
 
−
''Acacia sophorae'',     Coast Wattle
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
'''Spice''':
 
−
 
 
−
''[[Eucalyptus dives]]'',            Peppermint Gum
 
−
 
 
−
''[[Eucalyptus olida]]'',     Strawberry Gum
 
−
 
 
−
''[[Eucalyptus globulus]]'',        Tasmanian Blue Gum       
 
−
 
 
−
''Mentha australis'',                River Mint
 
−
 
 
−
''[[Tasmannia]] lanceolata'',     [[Mountain pepper]]
 
−
 
 
−
''Tasmannia stipitata'',     [[Dorrigo Pepper]]
 
−
 
 
−
''Tasmannia xerophila'',            Alpine Pepper
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
'''Vegetable''':
 
−
 
 
−
''Apium insulare'',     Flinders Island Celery
 
−
 
 
−
''Atriplex cinerea'',     Grey Saltbush
 
−
 
 
−
''Burchardia umbellata'',     Milkmaids
 
−
 
 
−
''Microseris scapigera'',     Murnong.
 
  
 
==See also==
 
==See also==
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*[[Bush bread]]
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*[[List of Indigenous Australian group names]]
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*[[Bushmeat]], something quite different
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*[[Noongar classification]]
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*[[Indigenous Australians]]
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==External links==
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*[[Warlpiri#kinship|Warlpiri kinship]]
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* [http://www.bom.gov.au/iwk/walabunnba/wantangka.shtml Aboriginal women's knowledge]
 
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*CSIRO plant profiles [http://www.cse.csiro.au/research/nativefoods/crops/index.htm]
 
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* [http://www.bushfood.net/forum Australian Bushfood and Native Medicine Forum]
 
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* [http://ausbushfoods.com/ Bushfoods Magazine]
 
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* [http://eataustralia.info Eat Australia]
 
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* [http://www.bushtucker.com.au/ A Bushfood/Bushtucker resource site]
 
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
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* Bruneteau, Jean-Paul, ''Tukka, Real Australian Food'', ISBN 0207189668.
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*Binnion, Joan (1979) ''The Lardil People of Mornington Island (Student Handbook)'', Aboriginal Community College, Port Adelaide.
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* Cherikoff, Vic, ''The Bushfood Handbook'', ISBN 0731669045.
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*Hansen, Kenneth C. and Lesley E. Hansen, 1979, ''Pintupi/Luritja kinship'', Alice Springs, NT, Institute for Aboriginal Development.
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* Issacs, Jennifer, ''Bushfood'', Weldons, Sydney.  
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*[http://ausanthrop.net/research/kinship/ Ausanthrop kinship tutorial]
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* Kersh, Jennice and Raymond, ''Edna's Table'', ISBN 0733605397.
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*[http://www.ausanthrop.net/research/kinship/kinship2.php Ausanthrop]
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* Low, Tim, ''Wild Food Plants of Australia'', ISBN 020769306.
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*[http://www.clc.org.au/ourculture/kinship.asp Central Land Council]
  
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[[Category:Bushfood|*]]
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[[Category:Australian Aboriginal culture|Kinship]]
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[[Category:Australian cuisine]]
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[[Category:Anthropology|Australian Aboriginal kinship]]
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[[Category:Indigenous Australian culture]]
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[[Category:Sociology|Australian Aboriginal Kinship]]
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[[Category:Fauna of Australia]]
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[[Category:Indigenous Australians|Kinship]]
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[[Category:Flora of Australia]]
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[[Category:Marriage|Australian Aboriginal Kinship]]

Revision as of 06:20, 1 October 2006

Australian Aboriginal kinship refers to the system of law governing social interaction, particularly marriage, in traditional Aboriginal culture. It is an integral part of the culture of every Aboriginal group across Australia.

The main element is the division of clans within the same language group into skin groups, or moieties. The simplest system involves division into two skin groups. There can be four divisions, while more complex systems are divided into eight.

The system dicates who may marry whom – it is always taboo to marry into your own skin group – creating strong incest avoidance laws and strong bonds across clans through exogamous relations. While it can be determined at birth who will marry whom, love marriages were not uncommon, so long as they were within the skin system. This can prove invaluable during drought or lack of resources, having cousins and skin sisters and brothers in other clans. It also creates obligations to care for those people in their time of need.

Each skin group has certain totems associated with it. Some Aboriginal groups, such as the Yolngu, include plants, animals and all aspects of the environment, as part of their respective skin groups.

A person of the same skin group, of the same generation, is called "brother" or "sister". There are also names for maternal aunts and uncles and paternal aunts and uncles. Additionally, there are strong avoidance relationships that need to be observed based on this system.

The skin group classification is cyclical in nature, changing with each generation. Non-Aboriginal people are often confounded to hear Aborigines refer to their great-grandmother as their daughter, or their great-grandaughter their mother. They are actually referring to the fact that those relatives are in the same skin group.

For traditional Aborigines, this system is a major foundation of their existence and way of viewing the world. As such, if a non-Aboriginal person is around their culture for any extended period, they must be adopted so they may be assigned a skin name and interact in the "proper way" with the group, knowing whom to avoid, whom to call sister, etc.

Many Aboriginal groups, particularly in the southeast of Australia, have lost this knowledge due to their forced removal to missions and children's homes, where many language groups mixed with each other, and Aboriginal language was forbidden.

Below are a few examples of different kinship systems from across Australia:

Systems with two skin groups

Pitjantjatjara

The Pitjantjatjara of northern South Australia have two moiety groups:

ngana nt arka (lit. we-bone) 'our side'
tjanamilytjan (lit. they flesh) 'their side'

However, they do not use skin names.

Yolŋu

For the Yolŋu of north-east Arnhem Land, life is divided into two skin groups: Dhuwa and Yirritja. Each of these is represented by people of a number of different groups, each with their own lands, languages and philosophies:

Skin name Clan groups
Yirritja Gumatj, Gupapuyngu, Wangurri, Ritharrngu, Mangalili,
Munyuku, Madarrpa, Warramiri, Dhalwangu, Liyalanmirri.
Dhuwa Rirratjingu, Galpu, Djambarrpuyngu, Golumala, Marrakulu,
Marrangu, Djapu, Datiwuy, Ngaymil, Djarrwark.

A Yirritja person must always marry a Dhuwa person and vice versa. If a man or woman is Dhuwa, their mother will be Yirritja.

Kinship relations are also mapped onto the lands owned by the Yolngu through their hereditary estates – so everything is either Yirritja or Dhuwa – every fish, stone, river, etc, belongs to one or the other moiety.

Systems with eight skin groups

Pintupi

The Pintupi of the Western Desert have a complex kinship system, made more so by distinct prefixes for male and female skin names; "Tj" for males, "N" for females. The Warlpiri system is almost the same:

Gender Skin name Can only mary Children will be
Male Tjapaltjarri Nakamarra Tjungurrayi, Nungurrayi
Female Napaltjarri Tjakamarra Tjupurrula, Napurrula
Male Tjapangati Nampitjinpa Tjapanangka, Napanangka
Female Napangati Tjampitjinpa Tjangala, Nangala
Male Tjakamarra Napaltjarri Tjupurrula, Napurrula
Female Nakamarra Tjapaltjarri Tjungurrayi, Nungurrayi
Male Tjampitjinpa Napangati Tjangala, Nangala
Female Nampitjinpa Tjapangati Tjapanangka, Napangangka
Male Tjapanangka Napurrula Tjapangati, Napangati
Female Napanangka Tjupurrula Tjakamarra, Nakamarra
Male Tjungurrayi Nangala Tjapaltjarri, Napaltjarri
Female Nungurrayi Tjangala Tampitjinpa, Nampitjinpa
Male Tjupurrula Napanangka Tjakamarra, Nakamarra
Female Napurrula Tjapanangka Tjapangati, Napangati
Male Tjangala Nungurrayi Tjampitjinpa, Nampitjinpa
Female Nangala Tjungarayyi Tjapaltjarri, Napaltjarri

Each person therefore has a patrimoiety and a matrimoiety, a father's and a mother's skin group.

Lardiil

The Lardiil of Mornington Island in the Gulf of Carpentaria also have eight skin groups, shown here with some of their totems: Template:Sectstub

Male skin group Totems Can only mary
female skin group 		Children will be
Ngarrijbalangi Rainbird, shooting star,
egret 		Burrarangi Bangariny
Bangariny Brown hark, turtle Yakimarr Ngarrijbalangi
Buranyi Crane, salt water,
sleeping turtle 		Kangal
Balyarriny Black tiger shark,
sea turtle 		Kamarrangi
Burrarangi Lightning, rough sea,
black dingo 		Ngarrijbalangi
Yakimarr Seagull, barramundi,
grey shark 		Bangariny
Kangal Barramundi,
grey shark 		Buranyi
Kamarrangi Rock, pelican, brolga,
red dingo 		Balyarriny

Each Lardiil person belongs to one of these groups. Their paternal grandfather's skin group determines their own; so a Balyarriny man or woman will have a Balyarriny grandfather. A Ngarrijbalangi person can only marry a Burrarangi, a Bangariny a Yakimarr, a Buranyi a Kangal and a Balyarriny a Kamarrangi, and vice versa for each.

Once a person's skin group is known, their relationship to any other Lardiil can be determined. A Ngarrijbalangi is a 'father' to a Bangariny, a 'father-in-law' to a Yakimarr and a 'son' to another Bangariny, either in a social sense or purely through linearship

See also

References

  • Binnion, Joan (1979) The Lardil People of Mornington Island (Student Handbook), Aboriginal Community College, Port Adelaide.
  • Hansen, Kenneth C. and Lesley E. Hansen, 1979, Pintupi/Luritja kinship, Alice Springs, NT, Institute for Aboriginal Development.
  • Ausanthrop kinship tutorial
  • Ausanthrop
  • Central Land Council
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