Difference between revisions of "AY Honors/Aboriginal Lore/Answer Key"

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−
:''[[Tjurunga (spider)|Tjurunga]]'' is also a genus of spiders ([[Stiphidiidae]])
+
The  word '''Bushfood''' refers to any [[Australia]]n native food, although it is sometimes used with the specific connotation of "food found in the [[Outback]] while living on the land". It is also called '''bush tucker'''. It includes both animal and plant foods native to Australia.
  
−
A '''Tjurunga''' or as it sometimes spelled, '''Churinga''', is an object of religious significance by [[Central Australia]]n [[Indigenous Australians|Indigenous Australian]] people of the [[Arrernte]] (Aranda, Arunta) groups. Tjurunga often had a wide and indeterminate native significance, they included:
+
More recently the food industry refers to gourmet bushfoods as '''Australian native foods'''.
−
*Sacred ceremonies
 
−
*Stone Objects
 
−
*Wooden sacred objects
 
−
*Bullroarers
 
−
*Sacred ground paintings
 
−
*Ceremonial poles
 
−
*Ceremonial head gear
 
−
*Sacred chants
 
−
*Sacred earth mounds
 
−
(Strehlow, 1947)
 
  
−
==Ownership==
+
Examples of Australian native animal foods (meat) include [[kangaroo]], [[emu]] and [[crocodile]]. In particular, kangaroo is quite common and can be  found in many normal supermarkets at prices comparable to beef. Other animals, for example the [[Goanna]] and the [[witchetty grub]], were eaten by [[Indigenous Australians|Aboriginal]] Australians and thus qualify as bushfood in every sense of the word. [[Fish]] and [[shellfish]] are culinary features of the Australian coastal communities.
−
Generally speaking, tjurunga denote [[sacred]] stone or wooden objects possessed by private or group owners together with the legends, chants, and ceremonies associated with them. They are amongst the very few forms of property which may be owned legitimately by individual persons in Central Australia.
 
  
−
The ownership of sacred tjurunga amongst the [[Arrernte]] groups was determined largely by 'the conception site' of every individual member of a [[patrilineal]] [[totem]]ic clan.
+
Examples of Australian native plant foods include the fruits: [[quandong]] (''Santalum acuminatum''), [[Australian desert raisin]] (''Solanum centrale''), [[muntries]] (''Kunzea pomifera''), [[riberry]] (''Syzygium luehmannii''), Davidson's plum (''[[Davidsonia]]'' spp.), and, [[Finger Lime]] (''Citrus australasica''). Native spices include [[lemon myrtle]] (''Backhousia citriodora''), mountain pepper (''Tasmannia lanceolata''), and, [[aniseed myrtle]] (''Syzygium anisatum''). A popular leafy vegetable is [[warrigal greens]] (''Tetragonia tetragonoides'').  
  
−
In many [[Mythology|myths]] the [[ancestors]] themselves are said to have used them and stored them away as their most treasured possessions. Such myths emphasise the life-holding [[magical]] properties of these tjuringas. The ancestor regarded his tjurunga as portions of his own being; and is always anxious that strangers might come and rob him of the very essence of his life. Accordingly, the legends abound with stories of theft and robbery, and the very fierce vengeance exacted.
+
Nuts include [[bunya nut]] (''Araucaria bidwillii''), and the most identifiable bushfood plant harvested and sold in large scale commercial quantities is the [[macadamia]] nut (''Macadamia integrifolia'').
  
−
The acquisition of sufficient knowledge leading to possession of personal tjurunga was long, difficult and sometimes extremely painful. Practices differed amongst the various groups. [[Ted Strehlow]] describes how the men from the Northern, Southern and Western [[Arrernte]] groups were put on probation for several years after their last [[initiation]]s.
+
=='''Traditional Aboriginal use'''==
  
−
==Acquisition of knowledge==
+
[[Australian Aborigines]] have eaten  native animal and plant foods for an estimated 60,000 years of human habitation on the Australian continent (''see [[Indigenous Australian food groups]], [[Australian Aboriginal sweet foods]])''.
−
The old men would carefully note a young man's conduct. He had to be respectful towards his [[elders]]; he had to be attentive to their advice in all things. He would know the value of silence in [[ceremonial]] matters: no account of his past experiences could be spoken with the hearing of women and children. His own marriage had to conform to the laws of the group. Then one day the old men, sitting in a circle, would call him in to sit down in their midst. They began to chant. One man told Strehlow:
 
  
−
:The old men seized my hand. They all struck up the chant-verse:
+
Various traditional methods of processing and cooking are used. Toxic seeds, such as [[Cycad]] (''Cycas media'') and Moreton Bay Chestnut (''Castanospermum australe'') are processed to remove the toxins and render them safe to eat. Many foods are also baked in the hot campfire coals, or baked for several hours in ground ovens. ‘Paperbark’, the bark of ''Melalauca'' species, is widely used for wrapping food placed in ground ovens. [[Bush bread]] was made by women using many types of seeds, nuts and corms to process a flour or dough to make bread.
  
−
:''With fierce eyes, with glowing eyes, they seize the thumb;<br>''
+
Aboriginal traditional native food use was severely impacted by the immigration of non-indigenous people, via displacement from traditional lands, destruction of native habitat, and the introduction of non-native foods.  
−
:''With fierce eyes, with glowing eyes, they rip off the nail.''
 
  
−
:An old man produced a sharp kangaroo bone (ntjala). He stabbed my thumb with it, pushed the bone deeply underneath the nail. He drew the point out; the rest kept up the chant. He thrust it under the nail in a different place. He gradually loosened the thumbnail. It was slippery with blood. I almost shrieked with pain; the torment was unbearable. I have not forgotten it: the pain was not slight; it was exceedingly great. When the nail had been loosened, he took a sharp opossum tooth, forced it into the living flesh through the base of the thumb-nail, and tore the nail off from behind. Blood spurted over his hand. The man chanted:
+
The recent recognition of the nutritional value of native foods by non-indigenous Australians is introducing native cuisine to white Australians, many for the first time. However, there are intellectual property issues associated with the commercialisation of bushfood.
  
−
:''They rip off the nail, they tear off the nail;<br> ''
+
=='''Colonial use'''==
−
:''Blood flows like a river, rushes along like a river.''
 
  
−
:''Then they seized my left hand and removed the thumb-nail in like manner''.
+
Bushfoods provided a source of nutrition to the non-indigenous colonial settlers, often supplementing meager rations.  However, bushfoods were often considered to be inferior by colonists  unfamiliar with the new land's food ingredients, generally preferring familiar foods from the homeland.
  
−
:Nowadays we make a great concession to the young men in our group. We no longer tear off their finger-nails. The price is too high; we give the tjurunga to them at a much lower cost. Besides, the young men of the present generation are no longer hardy enough to endure such pain.
+
The only Australian native food developed and cropped on a large scale is the macadamia nut, with the first small-scale commercial plantation being planted in Australia in the 1880s. Subsequently, [[Hawaii]] was where the macadamia was commercially developed to its greatest extent from stock imported from Australia.
  
−
==[[Ceremonial]] significance==
+
=='''Modern use'''==
−
The tjurunga were visible embodiments of some part of the [[fertility]] of the great ancestor of the totem in question. The body of the ancestor merely undergoes a [[transmutation]] into something that will weather all the assaults of time, change and decay. Stone tjurunga were thought to have been made by the ancestors themselves. The wooden tjurunga made by the old men are symbolical of the actual tjurunga which `cannot be found'. These 'man-made' tjurunga were accepted without reservation as sacred objects.
 
  
−
At the time of receiving his tjurunga-body a young man may be twenty five years of age. He will often be thirty-five or forty years of age before the most sacred chants and ceremonies that are linked with it have passed into his possession. As he grows older and continues to demonstrate his worthiness, he receives an ever-increasing share in the tjurunga owned by his own [[totemic]] clan. Eventually he may become a member of the assembly of old [[ceremonial chiefs]] who are honoured trustees for the ancient traditions of the whole clan.
+
In the 1970s non-indigenous Australians began to recognise the previously over-looked indigenous aspects of Australia, including native foods. Textbooks like ''Wildfoods In Australia'' by the botanist couple Cribb & Cribb were popular, and later the author [[Tim Low]] published ''Wild Food Plants of Australia''.
  
−
In 1933, Strehlow noted that after the advent of white men to Central Australia, the young men employed by the foreign intruders were watched very closely by the old men of their group. In many cases, unless the young men were outstandingly generous in their gifts towards their elders, no ceremonies or chants of power and importance were handed on to this unworthy younger generation. With the death of the old men such chants and ceremonies passed into oblivion.
+
TV shows also made use of the bushfood theme. [[Malcolm Douglas]] was one of the first presenters to show how to 'live off the land' in the Australian Outback. But it was probably Major [[Les Hiddins]] who popularised the idea of bush tucker. A retired [[Australian Army]] soldier, he presented a hit TV series called ''Bush Tucker Man'' on the [[Australian Broadcasting Commission|ABC]] TV network in the late 1980s. In the series, Hiddins demonstrated his training and research in combat survival by locating native foodstuffs in the northern Australian Outback.
 +
 
 +
Bushfood enthusiasts in regional Australia began to assess the culinary and cropping qualities of bushfoods in the early 1980s. This regional research laid the foundations for the development of the modern bushfood industry (see [[bushfood industry history]]).
 +
 
 +
In the mid-1980s metropolitan bushfood restaurants were using native Australian ingredients in recipes more familiar to modern tastes. This provided the first opportunity for bushfoods to be tried by non-indigenous Australians on a serious [[gourmet]] level, and led to the realisation that many strong-flavoured bushfoods have [[spice]]-like qualities. Some of these bushfood ingredients now feature in modern Australian cuisine, and [[Australian spices]] are being increasingly recognised internationally.
 +
 
 +
Value-added bushfood products were also developed for the domestic and export market. The raw ingredients are sourced from wild and cultivated sources, with an emphasis on the latter to provide sustainable quantities.
 +
 
 +
In the last decade, industry groups such as the Southern Bushfood Association, the Queensland Bushfood Association, the Northern Bushfood Association, and many others have been pushing for the introduction of bushfood as genuine cuisine in Australian and international restaurants.
 +
 
 +
The term "bushfood" is one of several terms describing native Australian food, evolving from the older-style "bushtucker" which was used in the 1970s and 1980s. The word "bushfood" was chosen to reflect the sustainable nature of the industry's products, and to help exporters with product branding. The term "Australian native food" is another term recently coined to create further separation from the more rustic bush connotations. However, the term "bushfood" is still used by many industry workers and authors.
 +
 
 +
=='''Australian native food-plants listed by culinary province and plant part'''==
 +
 
 +
Australian bushfood plants can be divided into several distinct and large regional culinary provinces. Please note, some species listed grow across several climatic boundaries.
 +
 
 +
===Top-end===
 +
Monsoonal zone of the Northern Territory, Cape York and Western Australia.
 +
 
 +
====Fruit====
 +
{|
 +
|''Buchanania arborescens''||Little Gooseberry Tree
 +
|-
 +
|''Citrus gracilis''||Kakadu Lime
 +
|-
 +
|''Ficus racemosa''||Cluster Fig
 +
|-
 +
|''Manilkara kaukii''||Wongi
 +
|-
 +
|''Melastoma affine''||Blue Tongue
 +
|-
 +
|''Mimusops elengi''||Tanjong
 +
|-
 +
|''Morinda citrifolia''||[[Noni]]
 +
|-
 +
|''Physalis minima''||Native Gooseberry
 +
|-
 +
|''[[Terminalia ferdinandiana]]''||Kakadu Plum
 +
|-
 +
|''Syzygium suborbiculare''||Lady Apple
 +
|}
 +
 
 +
====Vegetable====
 +
 
 +
{|
 +
|''Cycas media''||Cycad palm seeds (Require detoxification: see [[Bush bread]] )
 +
|-
 +
|''Dioscorea alata'',<br> ''Dioscorea transversa''||Pencil Yam, Long Yam
 +
|-
 +
|''Dioscorea bulbifera''||Round Yam
 +
|-
 +
|''Eleocharis'' sp.||Mat-Rush, a traditional staple for [[Yolngu]]
 +
|-
 +
|''Ipomoea aquatica''||Native Kang Kong
 +
|-
 +
|''Lotus nelumbo''||[[Lotus]]
 +
|-
 +
|''Nelumbo nucifera''||[[Nelumbo|water lily]]
 +
|-
 +
|''Nymphaea macrosperma''||[[Nymphaea|water lily]]
 +
|}
 +
 
 +
====Nut====
 +
{|
 +
|''Semecarpus australiensis''||Austraian Cashew Nut
 +
|-
 +
|''Terminalia catappa''||Sea Almond
 +
|}
 +
 
 +
====Spice====
 +
 
 +
{|
 +
|''[[Eucalyptus staigeriana]]''||Lemon Ironbark
 +
|-
 +
|''Melaleuca leucadendron''||Weeping Paperbark
 +
|-
 +
|''Ocimum tenuiflorum''||Native Basil
 +
|}
 +
 
 +
===Central Australia===
 +
Arid and semi-arid zones of the low rainfall interior.
 +
 
 +
====Fruit====
 +
{|
 +
|''Capparis'' spp.||Native Caper, [[Caperbush]]
 +
|-
 +
|''[[Capparis mitchelii]]''||Wild orange
 +
|-
 +
|''Capparis spinosa <br>ssp. nummularia''||[[Wild passionfruit]]
 +
|-
 +
|''[[Carissa lanceolata]]''||Bush plum, Conkerberry
 +
|-
 +
|''Citrus glauca''||[[Desert Lime]]
 +
|-
 +
|''Enchylaena tormentosa''||Ruby Saltbush
 +
|-
 +
|''Ficus platypoda''||Desert Fig
 +
|-
 +
|''Marsdenia australis''||[[Doubah]], [[Bush Banana]]
 +
|-
 +
|''Owenia acidula''||Emu Apple
 +
|-
 +
|''Santalum acuminatum''||[[Quandong]]
 +
|-
 +
|''Santalum lanceolatum''||[[Sandalwood]]
 +
|-
 +
|''[[Solanum centrale]]''||Akudjura, Australian Desert Raisin, Bush sultana
 +
|-
 +
|''[[Solanum cleistogarnum]]''||[[Bush tomato]]
 +
|-
 +
|''[[Solanum ellipticum]]''||[[Bush tomato]]
 +
|}
 +
 
 +
====Vegetable====
 +
 
 +
{|
 +
|''Calandrinia balonensis''||Parakeelya
 +
|-
 +
|''[[Ipomoea costata]]''||Bush potato
 +
|-
 +
|''Vigna lanceolata''||[[Pencil Yam]]
 +
|-
 +
|''Lepidium'' spp.||Peppercresses
 +
|-
 +
|''Portulaca intraterranea''||Large Pigweed
 +
|}
 +
 
 +
====Spice====
 +
 
 +
{|
 +
|''[[Eucalyptus polybractea]]''||Blue-leaved Mallee
 +
|}
 +
 
 +
====Seed====
 +
 
 +
{|
 +
|''Acacia aneura''||[[Mulga]]
 +
|-
 +
|''Acacia colei''||
 +
|-
 +
|''Acacia coriacea''||Dogwood
 +
|-
 +
|''Acacia holosericea''||Strap Wattle
 +
|-
 +
|''Acacia kempeana''||Witchetty Bush
 +
|-
 +
|''Acacia murrayana''||
 +
|-
 +
|''Acacia pycantha''||
 +
|-
 +
|''Acacia retinodes''||
 +
|-
 +
|''[[Acacia tetragonophylla]]''||Dead finish seed
 +
|-
 +
|''[[Acacia victoriae]]''||Gundabluey, Prickly wattle
 +
|-
 +
|''Brachychiton populneus''||[[Kurrajong]]
 +
|-
 +
|''Panicum decompositum''||native millet
 +
|-
 +
|''[[Portulaca oleracea]]''||Pigweed
 +
|-
 +
|''[[Triodia spp. ]]''||commonly known as spinifex
 +
|}
 +
 
 +
====Insects in gall====
 +
 
 +
[[Bush coconut]]
 +
 
 +
[[Mulga apple]]
 +
 
 +
===Eastern Australia===
 +
Subtropical rainforests of New South Wales to the wet tropics of Northern Queensland.
 +
 
 +
====Fruit====
 +
 
 +
{|
 +
|''Acronychia acidula''||[[Lemon Aspen]]
 +
|-
 +
|''Acronychia oblongifolia''||White Aspen
 +
|-
 +
|''Antidesma bunius''||Herbet River Cherry
 +
|-
 +
|''Archirhodomyrtus beckleri''||Rose Myrtle
 +
|-
 +
|''Austromyrtus dulcis''||[[Midyim]]
 +
|-
 +
|''Carpobrotus glaucescens''||Pigface
 +
|-
 +
|''Citrus australasica''||[[Finger Lime]]
 +
|-
 +
|''Citrus australis''||Dooja
 +
|-
 +
|''[[Davidsonia]]'' spp.||Davidson’s Plum
 +
|-
 +
|''Diploglottis campbellii''||Small-leaf Tamarind
 +
|-
 +
|''[[Eupomatia laurina]]''||Bolwarra
 +
|-
 +
|''Ficus coronata''||Sandpaper Fig
 +
|-
 +
|''Melodorum leichhardtii''||Zig Zag Vine
 +
|-
 +
|''Pleiogynium timorense''||Burdekin Plum
 +
|-
 +
|''[[Podocarpus elatus]]''||Illawarra Plum
 +
|-
 +
|''Planchonella australis''||Black Apple
 +
|-
 +
|''Rubus hillii''||Broad-leaf Bramble
 +
|-
 +
|''Rubus probus''||Atherton Raspberry
 +
|-
 +
|''Rubus rosifolius''||Rose-leaf Bramble
 +
|-
 +
|''Sambucus australasica''||Yellow Elderberry
 +
|-
 +
|''Syzygium fibrosum''||Fibrous Satinash
 +
|-
 +
|''Syzygium luehmannii''||[[Riberry]]
 +
|-
 +
|''Ximenia americana''||Yellow Plum
 +
|}
 +
 
 +
====Vegetable====
 +
 
 +
{|
 +
|''Apium prostratum''||Sea Celery 
 +
|-
 +
|''Commelina cyanea''||Scurvy Weed
 +
|-
 +
|''Geitonoplesium cymosum''||Scrambling Lily
 +
|-
 +
|''[[Tetragonia tetragonoides]]''||Warrigal Greens
 +
|-
 +
|''Trachymene incisa''||Wild Parsnip
 +
|}
 +
 
 +
====Spice====
 +
 
 +
{|
 +
|''Alpinia coerulea''||Native Ginger
 +
|-
 +
|''Backhousia citriodora''||[[Lemon Myrtle]]
 +
|-
 +
|''Backhousia myrtifolia''||[[Cinnamon Myrtle]]
 +
|-
 +
|''Melaleuca quinquenervia''||Broad-leaf Paperbark
 +
|-
 +
|''[[Prostanthera incisa]]''||Cut-leaf Mintbush
 +
|-
 +
|''Syzygium anisatum''||[[aniseed myrtle]]
 +
|}
 +
 
 +
====Nut====
 +
 
 +
{|
 +
|''[[Araucaria bidwillii]]''||Bunya Nut
 +
|-
 +
|''Athertonia diversifolius''||Atherton Almond
 +
|-
 +
|''Macadamia integrifolia''||[[Macadamia]] Nut
 +
|-
 +
|''Macadamia tetraphylla''||Bush Nut
 +
|-
 +
|''[[Sterculia quadrifida]]''||Peanut Tree
 +
|}
 +
 
 +
====Vegetable====
 +
 
 +
{|
 +
|''[[Apium prostratum]]''||Sea Celery
 +
|-
 +
|''Commelina cyanea''|| Scurvy Weed
 +
|-
 +
|''Geitonoplesium cymosum''||Scrambling Lily
 +
|-
 +
|''[[Tetragonia tetragonoides]]''||Warrigal Greens
 +
|-
 +
|''Trachymene incisa''||Wild Parsnip
 +
|}
 +
 
 +
 
 +
 
 +
 
 +
===Temperate===
 +
Warm and cool temperate zones of Tasmania, South Australia, Victoria and the highlands of New South Wales.
 +
 
 +
 
 +
====Fruit====
 +
{|
 +
|''Acrotriche depressa''||Native Currant
 +
|-
 +
|''Billarderia cymosa''||Sweet Apple-berry
 +
|-
 +
|''Billarderia longiflora''||Purple Apple-berry
 +
|-
 +
|''Billarderia scandens''||Common Apple-berry
 +
|-
 +
|''Carpobrotus rossii''||Karkalla
 +
|-
 +
|''Eustrephus latifolius''||Wombat berry
 +
|-
 +
|''Exocarpus cupressiformis''||Native Cherry
 +
|-
 +
|''Gaultheria hispida''||Snow Berry
 +
|-
 +
|''[[Kunzea pomifera]]''||[[Muntries]]
 +
|-
 +
|''Rubus parvifolius''|| Pink-flowered Native Raspberry
 +
|-
 +
|''Sambucus gaudichaudiana''|| White Elderberry
 +
|}
 +
 
 +
====Seed====
 +
{|
 +
|''Acacia longifolia''|| Golden Rods
 +
|-
 +
|''Acacia sophorae''|| Coast Wattle
 +
|}
 +
 
 +
====Spice====
 +
 
 +
{|
 +
|''[[Eucalyptus dives]]''|| Peppermint Gum
 +
|-
 +
|''[[Eucalyptus olida]]''|| Strawberry Gum
 +
|-
 +
|''[[Eucalyptus globulus]]''|| Tasmanian Blue Gum
 +
|-
 +
|''Mentha australis''|| River Mint
 +
|-
 +
|''[[Tasmannia lanceolata]]''|| Mountain pepper
 +
|-
 +
|''Tasmannia stipitata''|| [[Dorrigo Pepper]]
 +
|-
 +
|''Tasmannia xerophila''|| Alpine Pepper
 +
|}
 +
 
 +
====Vegetable====
 +
 
 +
{|
 +
|''Apium insulare''|| Flinders Island Celery
 +
|-
 +
|''Atriplex cinerea''|| Grey Saltbush
 +
|-
 +
|''Burchardia umbellata''|| Milkmaids
 +
|-
 +
|''Microseris scapigera''|| Murnong
 +
|}
  
−
==References==
 
−
T.G.H Strehlow, Aranda Traditions, Melbourne University Press, 1947. p.85-6
 
  
−
==External links==
+
==See also==
 +
*[[Australian Aboriginal sweet foods]]
 +
*[[Bush bread]]
 +
*[[Bushmeat]], something quite different
 +
*[[Bush medicine]]
 +
*[[Indigenous Australian food groups]]
  
−
*[http://www.duckdigital.net/FOD/FOD1051.html Flight of Ducks] Documented sales of Tjurunga with descriptions collated from online auction sites.
+
==External links==
 +
*[http://indigenousaustralia.frogandtoad.com.au/bushtucker.html Aboriginal Australia]
 +
* [http://www.bushfood.net/ Australian Bushfood and Native Medicine Forum]
 +
* [http://www.bom.gov.au/iwk/walabunnba/wantangka.shtml Aboriginal women's knowledge]
 +
*CSIRO plant profiles [http://www.cse.csiro.au/research/nativefoods/crops/index.htm]
 +
* [http://ausbushfoods.com/ Bushfoods Magazine]
 +
* [http://eataustralia.info Eat Australia]
 +
* [http://www.bushtucker.com.au/ A Bushfood/Bushtucker resource site]
  
−
[[Category:Ceremonies]]
+
==References==
−
[[Category:Fertility]]
+
* Bruneteau, Jean-Paul, ''Tukka, Real Australian Food'', ISBN 0-207-18966-8.
−
[[Category:Australian Aboriginal culture]]
+
* Cherikoff, Vic, ''The Bushfood Handbook'', ISBN 0-7316-6904-5.
−
[[Category:Religion in Australia]]
+
* Issacs, Jennifer, ''Bushfood'', Weldons, Sydney.
 +
* Kersh, Jennice and Raymond, ''Edna's Table'', ISBN 0-7336-0539-7.
 +
* Low, Tim, ''Wild Food Plants of Australia'', ISBN-13: 978-0207143830
  
−
[[uk:Чуринги]]
+
[[Category:Bushfood|*]]
 +
[[Category:Australian cuisine]]
 +
[[Category:Indigenous Australian culture]]
 +
[[Category:Flora of Australia]]
 +
[[Category:Australian Aboriginal bushcraft]]

Revision as of 00:49, 26 January 2007

The word Bushfood refers to any Australian native food, although it is sometimes used with the specific connotation of "food found in the Outback while living on the land". It is also called bush tucker. It includes both animal and plant foods native to Australia.

More recently the food industry refers to gourmet bushfoods as Australian native foods.

Examples of Australian native animal foods (meat) include kangaroo, emu and crocodile. In particular, kangaroo is quite common and can be found in many normal supermarkets at prices comparable to beef. Other animals, for example the Goanna and the witchetty grub, were eaten by Aboriginal Australians and thus qualify as bushfood in every sense of the word. Fish and shellfish are culinary features of the Australian coastal communities.

Examples of Australian native plant foods include the fruits: quandong (Santalum acuminatum), Australian desert raisin (Solanum centrale), muntries (Kunzea pomifera), riberry (Syzygium luehmannii), Davidson's plum (Davidsonia spp.), and, Finger Lime (Citrus australasica). Native spices include lemon myrtle (Backhousia citriodora), mountain pepper (Tasmannia lanceolata), and, aniseed myrtle (Syzygium anisatum). A popular leafy vegetable is warrigal greens (Tetragonia tetragonoides).

Nuts include bunya nut (Araucaria bidwillii), and the most identifiable bushfood plant harvested and sold in large scale commercial quantities is the macadamia nut (Macadamia integrifolia).

Traditional Aboriginal use

Australian Aborigines have eaten native animal and plant foods for an estimated 60,000 years of human habitation on the Australian continent (see Indigenous Australian food groups, Australian Aboriginal sweet foods).

Various traditional methods of processing and cooking are used. Toxic seeds, such as Cycad (Cycas media) and Moreton Bay Chestnut (Castanospermum australe) are processed to remove the toxins and render them safe to eat. Many foods are also baked in the hot campfire coals, or baked for several hours in ground ovens. ‘Paperbark’, the bark of Melalauca species, is widely used for wrapping food placed in ground ovens. Bush bread was made by women using many types of seeds, nuts and corms to process a flour or dough to make bread.

Aboriginal traditional native food use was severely impacted by the immigration of non-indigenous people, via displacement from traditional lands, destruction of native habitat, and the introduction of non-native foods.

The recent recognition of the nutritional value of native foods by non-indigenous Australians is introducing native cuisine to white Australians, many for the first time. However, there are intellectual property issues associated with the commercialisation of bushfood.

Colonial use

Bushfoods provided a source of nutrition to the non-indigenous colonial settlers, often supplementing meager rations. However, bushfoods were often considered to be inferior by colonists unfamiliar with the new land's food ingredients, generally preferring familiar foods from the homeland.

The only Australian native food developed and cropped on a large scale is the macadamia nut, with the first small-scale commercial plantation being planted in Australia in the 1880s. Subsequently, Hawaii was where the macadamia was commercially developed to its greatest extent from stock imported from Australia.

Modern use

In the 1970s non-indigenous Australians began to recognise the previously over-looked indigenous aspects of Australia, including native foods. Textbooks like Wildfoods In Australia by the botanist couple Cribb & Cribb were popular, and later the author Tim Low published Wild Food Plants of Australia.

TV shows also made use of the bushfood theme. Malcolm Douglas was one of the first presenters to show how to 'live off the land' in the Australian Outback. But it was probably Major Les Hiddins who popularised the idea of bush tucker. A retired Australian Army soldier, he presented a hit TV series called Bush Tucker Man on the ABC TV network in the late 1980s. In the series, Hiddins demonstrated his training and research in combat survival by locating native foodstuffs in the northern Australian Outback.

Bushfood enthusiasts in regional Australia began to assess the culinary and cropping qualities of bushfoods in the early 1980s. This regional research laid the foundations for the development of the modern bushfood industry (see bushfood industry history).

In the mid-1980s metropolitan bushfood restaurants were using native Australian ingredients in recipes more familiar to modern tastes. This provided the first opportunity for bushfoods to be tried by non-indigenous Australians on a serious gourmet level, and led to the realisation that many strong-flavoured bushfoods have spice-like qualities. Some of these bushfood ingredients now feature in modern Australian cuisine, and Australian spices are being increasingly recognised internationally.

Value-added bushfood products were also developed for the domestic and export market. The raw ingredients are sourced from wild and cultivated sources, with an emphasis on the latter to provide sustainable quantities.

In the last decade, industry groups such as the Southern Bushfood Association, the Queensland Bushfood Association, the Northern Bushfood Association, and many others have been pushing for the introduction of bushfood as genuine cuisine in Australian and international restaurants.

The term "bushfood" is one of several terms describing native Australian food, evolving from the older-style "bushtucker" which was used in the 1970s and 1980s. The word "bushfood" was chosen to reflect the sustainable nature of the industry's products, and to help exporters with product branding. The term "Australian native food" is another term recently coined to create further separation from the more rustic bush connotations. However, the term "bushfood" is still used by many industry workers and authors.

Australian native food-plants listed by culinary province and plant part

Australian bushfood plants can be divided into several distinct and large regional culinary provinces. Please note, some species listed grow across several climatic boundaries.

Top-end

Monsoonal zone of the Northern Territory, Cape York and Western Australia.

Fruit

Buchanania arborescens Little Gooseberry Tree
Citrus gracilis Kakadu Lime
Ficus racemosa Cluster Fig
Manilkara kaukii Wongi
Melastoma affine Blue Tongue
Mimusops elengi Tanjong
Morinda citrifolia Noni
Physalis minima Native Gooseberry
Terminalia ferdinandiana Kakadu Plum
Syzygium suborbiculare Lady Apple

Vegetable

Cycas media Cycad palm seeds (Require detoxification: see Bush bread )
Dioscorea alata,
Dioscorea transversa		 Pencil Yam, Long Yam
Dioscorea bulbifera Round Yam
Eleocharis sp. Mat-Rush, a traditional staple for Yolngu
Ipomoea aquatica Native Kang Kong
Lotus nelumbo Lotus
Nelumbo nucifera water lily
Nymphaea macrosperma water lily

Nut

Semecarpus australiensis Austraian Cashew Nut
Terminalia catappa Sea Almond

Spice

Eucalyptus staigeriana Lemon Ironbark
Melaleuca leucadendron Weeping Paperbark
Ocimum tenuiflorum Native Basil

Central Australia

Arid and semi-arid zones of the low rainfall interior.

Fruit

Capparis spp. Native Caper, Caperbush
Capparis mitchelii Wild orange
Capparis spinosa
ssp. nummularia		 Wild passionfruit
Carissa lanceolata Bush plum, Conkerberry
Citrus glauca Desert Lime
Enchylaena tormentosa Ruby Saltbush
Ficus platypoda Desert Fig
Marsdenia australis Doubah, Bush Banana
Owenia acidula Emu Apple
Santalum acuminatum Quandong
Santalum lanceolatum Sandalwood
Solanum centrale Akudjura, Australian Desert Raisin, Bush sultana
Solanum cleistogarnum Bush tomato
Solanum ellipticum Bush tomato

Vegetable

Calandrinia balonensis Parakeelya
Ipomoea costata Bush potato
Vigna lanceolata Pencil Yam
Lepidium spp. Peppercresses
Portulaca intraterranea Large Pigweed

Spice

Eucalyptus polybractea Blue-leaved Mallee

Seed

Acacia aneura Mulga
Acacia colei
Acacia coriacea Dogwood
Acacia holosericea Strap Wattle
Acacia kempeana Witchetty Bush
Acacia murrayana
Acacia pycantha
Acacia retinodes
Acacia tetragonophylla Dead finish seed
Acacia victoriae Gundabluey, Prickly wattle
Brachychiton populneus Kurrajong
Panicum decompositum native millet
Portulaca oleracea Pigweed
Triodia spp. commonly known as spinifex

Insects in gall

Bush coconut

Mulga apple

Eastern Australia

Subtropical rainforests of New South Wales to the wet tropics of Northern Queensland.

Fruit

Acronychia acidula Lemon Aspen
Acronychia oblongifolia White Aspen
Antidesma bunius Herbet River Cherry
Archirhodomyrtus beckleri Rose Myrtle
Austromyrtus dulcis Midyim
Carpobrotus glaucescens Pigface
Citrus australasica Finger Lime
Citrus australis Dooja
Davidsonia spp. Davidson’s Plum
Diploglottis campbellii Small-leaf Tamarind
Eupomatia laurina Bolwarra
Ficus coronata Sandpaper Fig
Melodorum leichhardtii Zig Zag Vine
Pleiogynium timorense Burdekin Plum
Podocarpus elatus Illawarra Plum
Planchonella australis Black Apple
Rubus hillii Broad-leaf Bramble
Rubus probus Atherton Raspberry
Rubus rosifolius Rose-leaf Bramble
Sambucus australasica Yellow Elderberry
Syzygium fibrosum Fibrous Satinash
Syzygium luehmannii Riberry
Ximenia americana Yellow Plum

Vegetable

Apium prostratum Sea Celery
Commelina cyanea Scurvy Weed
Geitonoplesium cymosum Scrambling Lily
Tetragonia tetragonoides Warrigal Greens
Trachymene incisa Wild Parsnip

Spice

Alpinia coerulea Native Ginger
Backhousia citriodora Lemon Myrtle
Backhousia myrtifolia Cinnamon Myrtle
Melaleuca quinquenervia Broad-leaf Paperbark
Prostanthera incisa Cut-leaf Mintbush
Syzygium anisatum aniseed myrtle

Nut

Araucaria bidwillii Bunya Nut
Athertonia diversifolius Atherton Almond
Macadamia integrifolia Macadamia Nut
Macadamia tetraphylla Bush Nut
Sterculia quadrifida Peanut Tree

Vegetable

Apium prostratum Sea Celery
Commelina cyanea Scurvy Weed
Geitonoplesium cymosum Scrambling Lily
Tetragonia tetragonoides Warrigal Greens
Trachymene incisa Wild Parsnip



Temperate

Warm and cool temperate zones of Tasmania, South Australia, Victoria and the highlands of New South Wales.


Fruit

Acrotriche depressa Native Currant
Billarderia cymosa Sweet Apple-berry
Billarderia longiflora Purple Apple-berry
Billarderia scandens Common Apple-berry
Carpobrotus rossii Karkalla
Eustrephus latifolius Wombat berry
Exocarpus cupressiformis Native Cherry
Gaultheria hispida Snow Berry
Kunzea pomifera Muntries
Rubus parvifolius Pink-flowered Native Raspberry
Sambucus gaudichaudiana White Elderberry

Seed

Acacia longifolia Golden Rods
Acacia sophorae Coast Wattle

Spice

Eucalyptus dives Peppermint Gum
Eucalyptus olida Strawberry Gum
Eucalyptus globulus Tasmanian Blue Gum
Mentha australis River Mint
Tasmannia lanceolata Mountain pepper
Tasmannia stipitata Dorrigo Pepper
Tasmannia xerophila Alpine Pepper

Vegetable

Apium insulare Flinders Island Celery
Atriplex cinerea Grey Saltbush
Burchardia umbellata Milkmaids
Microseris scapigera Murnong


See also

External links

References

  • Bruneteau, Jean-Paul, Tukka, Real Australian Food, ISBN 0-207-18966-8.
  • Cherikoff, Vic, The Bushfood Handbook, ISBN 0-7316-6904-5.
  • Issacs, Jennifer, Bushfood, Weldons, Sydney.
  • Kersh, Jennice and Raymond, Edna's Table, ISBN 0-7336-0539-7.
  • Low, Tim, Wild Food Plants of Australia, ISBN-13: 978-0207143830
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