AY Honor Pioneering Answer Key

Pioneering
Pioneering
Recreation
	Skill Level 123
Approval authority General Conference	Year of Introduction 1956
	See also Wilderness Master Award; Outdoor Leadership; Oregon Trail

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Pioneering

Skill Level

2

Year

1956

Version

21.11.2024

Approval authority

General Conference

1

Describe in writing, orally, or with pictures how the early pioneers met the following basic living needs:

1a

Housing and furnishings

Housing

Log Cabin

Sod House

The first European settlers in the New World came from England, and brought English building practices with them. In England, timber was scarce, and the building techniques reflected that scarcity. This really made little sense, because the East Coast of the New World where they settled was literally covered with timber. When the Swedes arrived around 1640, they introduced the log cabin. Compared to other house-building techniques, log cabin construction saved a lot of labor. Logs needed to be debarked, cut to length, and notched where they made joints. They did not need to be sawn into planks.

The log cabin served the pioneers well until they pushed into the Great Plains where trees again were scarce. Settlers in the plains turned to the most abundant building material available to them - sod. They would cut from the ground rectangles of sod measuring about 600×300×150mm, and pile them into walls. The resulting structure was a well-insulated but damp dwelling that was very inexpensive. Sod houses required frequent maintenance and were vulnerable to rain damage. Stucco or wood panels often protected the outer walls. Canvas or plaster often lined the interior walls.

Furnishings

In the early nineteenth century it became increasingly popular for rural Americans of modest means to take the decoration of their homes and furniture into their own hands. Rather than hauling a lot of furniture into newly settled areas, the pioneers frequently made their furnishing at the new homestead site from materials available there.

Rugs could be made from scraps of worn-out clothing or other fabric. Scraps would be braided together to form a long rope, then coiled round and sewn together to form a practical rug.

Barrels and wagon boards might suffice for tables and chairs until proper ones could be built or bought.

Bed supports were made from rope or wooden slats. Mattresses would be filled with straw, corn husks, moss, or other available firm material. Soft upper mattresses could be stuffed with cattail down, wool or feathers.

1b

Clothing

Late 19th century bonnet

Buckskins: Buckskins are clothing, usually consisting of a jacket and leggings, made from buckskin, a soft sueded leather from the hide of deer or elk. Buckskins are often trimmed with fringe (originally a functional detail, to allow the garment to dry faster when it was soaking wet because the fringe acted as wicks to soak away the water, or quills. Buckskins derive from deerskin clothing worn by Native Americans. They were popular with mountain men and other frontiersmen for their warmth and durability.
Breeches: Breeches (pronounced britches) are an item of male clothing covering the body from the waist down, with separate coverings for each leg, usually stopping just below the knee, though in some cases reaching to the ankles. The breeching of a young boy, at an age somewhere between six and eight, was a landmark in his childhood.

The spelling britches reflects a common pronunciation, and is often used in casual speech to mean trousers or "pants". Breeks is a Scots or northern English spelling and pronunciation.

Trowsers/Trousers: These are men's pants or trousers. Often they were made from canvas, wool or linen. The seat was baggy to allow a man to sit down with ease and rode higher than modern pants. Canvas trousers were favored by gold rush men for their sturdiness.

Shirts: Men's shirts were often constructed out of squares and rectangles of material so that every inch of fabric was used. Red and blue calico shirts were especially popular because they were not so apt to fade as other colors. White was another popular color because it was easier to clean. Other colors were difficult to keep from fading but a white shirt could easily go back to being white. They were sometimes called "boiled shirts", named for the practice of boiling white shirts to clean them.

Bonnets: Sunbonnets were an essential item for pioneers crossing the western trails as a form of 19th century sunscreen. The wide brim and long sides protected their skin from sunburn. Sunbonnet variations (including the slat bonnet and the corded sunbonnet) covered the face, neck and shoulders. In some cases men were even known to wear sunbonnets as protection.

Hats: Hats were commonly made from straw, wool felt, or beaver. Most pioneer hats were designed for practicality. A practical pioneer hat would have a wide brim to keep the rain and sun off a man's face.

Aprons: An apron is an outer protective garment that covers primarily the front of the body. The apron was traditionally viewed as an essential garment for anyone doing housework because they were so much easier to wash than dresses. Men also wore work aprons to protect their clothes. Cheaper clothes and washing machines made aprons less common beginning in the mid 1960s.

Dresses: Dresses were normally made at home from calico or some other inexpensive cloth imported from the east (either the Eastern U.S. or Europe). They could also be made from linsey-woolsey (a sturdy cloth made with a linen warp and a wool weft) which was also called wincey. These wincey dresses were almost indestructible, but not very fashionable. Women with the ability and inclination might also spin and weave their own cloth, called homespun, which they would dye with plants. Wool dresses were prized for their ability to breathe, shed water, stay warm or cool (depending on weave) and the ease of cleaning (most dirt could easily be brushed off), but they did have to be protected from moths and other animals.

1c

Food

The first priority of a pioneer family when arriving in a new area was to build a house and a barn. If possible, they would also set out a garden, however, that depended on their season of arrival. Before crops on a large scale could be planted, land had to be cleared. It was usually not completed during the first year of settling. First the settlers needed to clear the property of trees and stumps. In many areas (notably New England) clearing the trees and stumps would reveal a field full of large rocks which would also have to be cleared. They would build large bon fires over the largest rocks so that the heat would crack them. Then they could extend the fractures by hand to render the boulders into smaller rocks that could be dragged out by horses. The rocks cleared from fields were generally used to construct stone walls along the borders of fields and to mark property boundaries. Clearing fields was a highly laborious process, requiring hours of back-breaking work over an extended period of time.

During the first year of settling, pioneers mostly relied on wild game and their own dehydrated and preserved provisions for food. They also gathered wild plants to eat and used their gardens to the extent that they could. In spring they might tap maple trees for syrup. They also kept livestock and poultry to ensure a steady supply of milk, eggs and meat.

1d

Cooking

The Pioneers cooked over open fires using Dutch Ovens and kettles. If they had one, they would use a Franklin stove (see below).

1e

Warmth and light

Oil lamps: Oil, gas and kerosene lamps were used, but were not as common as candles. Lamps did give off more light than candles, but required more supplies and hardware to keep maintained.

Candles: With candles, a pioneer did not have to worry about spilling lamp fuel, breaking lamps, or replacing wicks and broken chimneys. Candles were cheaper and more portable than lamps. An average, middle-class household in the 1800s used approximately one hundred pounds of candles per year.

Homemade candles: Homemade candles were most often made from tallow (a byproduct of beef-fat rendering). Tallow burned quickly, stunk terribly and gave off a lot of smoke, however they were cheap (most rural people had fat from butchering) and offered an emergency source of sustenance. Tallow candles had to be protected from heat because they melted at a mere 100 degrees. Tallow candles could also be purchased. Purchased tallow candles were the least expensive and cost between sixteen and twenty-five cents per pound or two and two and half cents per candle.

Beeswax candles: were also made at home, but not nearly as often as tallow. Beeswax was more expensive, but gave off a nice smell, lasted longer (did not melt until 155 degrees) and did not smoke. A family would more often purchase beeswax candles, but they were by far the most expensive candle. They sold for between sixty and seventy-five cents per pound.

Stearin: (a hard, long lasting candle made with stearic acid, a component that hardens fats) and spermaceti (whale oil) candles were always purchased.

Fireplaces: A hearth fire was probably the first form of winter heat used by the Pioneers. It not only heated a cabin, it was also used for cooking. However, fireplaces are not very efficient as most of the heat they produce goes right out the chimney. A metal reflector placed in the back of the fireplace helped to alleviate this problem somewhat. Fireplaces also helped to light the home.

Franklin Stove: The Franklin stove (named after its inventor, Benjamin Franklin) is a metal-lined fireplace with baffles in the rear to improve the airflow, providing more heat and less smoke than an ordinary open fireplace. It is also known as the circulating stove. Although in current usage the term "stove" implies a closed firebox, the front of a Franklin stove is open to the room.

1f

Tools and handiwork

Tools were an essential element to the pioneers moving into a new area, but they often only brought the most basic ones with them. Among these would be an ax and a drawknife. They first thing they would do with these tools was fashion handles for all their other tools (shovels, hoes, etc.). They usually only brought the metal portions of such tools because the handles were big and bulky, and they had limited cargo-carrying capacity.

1g

Sanitation

Once they arrived in an area, the pioneers would establish a permanent latrine, or an outhouse. This consisted of a hole dug into the ground (three-to-six feet deep). They would then erect a structure over the hole and furnish it with one or two seats positioned over the hole. When the hole was nearly filled with human waste, they would dig another latrine elsewhere and relocated the outhouse over it, burying the old hole with dirt removed from the new one. They did not have toilet paper, but rather used corn cobs, tree bark, leaves, or if they were lucky, the pages from catalogs. Toilet paper became available in 1857 and was sold by the sheet, rather than on a roll but still remained less common than other forms of sanitary wipes.

Wash basins were kept in the bedrooms, and normally, a person would wash their hands and face on a daily basis. Full body bathing was done indoors in a large wash tub. Common advice was to bathe once a week, though some bathed more often and some less. Water was drawn from a well to fill a large metal or wooden wash tub. They would then boil a smaller amount of water in a kettle and add that to the tub as well to warm it up.

Food scraps were fed to animals (cattle, pigs, dogs, etc.).

1h

Transportation

Trails: When the pioneers arrived in the New World, there were no roads at all. There were trails, but these were made for horses and for people on foot, so they were not suited for wagons. Pioneers often widened these footpaths to create trails wide enough for wheeled vehicles to pass.

A Corduroy road

Roads: Rough, quickly built roads, called corduroy roads, were built by felling logs and laying them side-by-side across the "road" and then covering them with earth. This was done in boggy or swampy areas that were otherwise impassable by wagon. After a heavy rain, the earth would be washed away leaving dangerous gaps between the logs. It was not uncommon for a horse to step into one of these gaps and break its leg.

Pioneers Crossing the Plains of Nebraska

Wagon Trains: A wagon train consists of a group of wagons moving together. Whereas wagon trains were common in the Old West, in other places of the world different forms of caravans and convoys were often used, such as camel trains in Australia. A wagon train allowed pioneers to travel together for safety. Each wagon train formed their own government and made their own set of rules for wagon train members to follow. Often these wagon trains would be lead by an experienced 'wagon master' who knew the route. The wagon master would set out his rules and a wagon train wishing to follow him would pay him a set sum of money to lead them safely across the plains.

Often, at night time, wagon trains would form into a circle, to provide a corral for animals and offer some shelter from wind/weather. Today, covered wagon trains are used to give an authentic experience for those desiring to explore the West as it was in the days of the pioneers and other groups traveling before modern vehicles were invented.

Rivers: A quick glance at a modern map of the Eastern United States will show you that Interstate 95 runs up the Atlantic seaboard from one major city to the next. Why are these cities there? A closer inspection will reveal that most of these cities are situated on rivers, and usually at the fall line. The fall line is the place on the river where the first waterfalls are met when traveling upstream. Cities were built here because that's as far as the pioneers could travel by river before they had to get out of their boats. Usually they would haul their cargo overland above the falls and load it onto barges so they could continue the trip by river.

The Sea: It was often more economical to travel from one city to the next by getting on a ship and sailing down the coast than it was to ride a horse or walk. Travelers from the eastern coast of America wishing to go to the western coast of North America had the option of taking a ship. A traveler could sail to Panama, get off the ship, travel by land across Panama (The canal had not been built yet!) then take another ship to their final destination. Their other option was to take a ship and sail all the way around the southernmost tip of South America, then up to the Sandwich Islands (now called Hawaii) where they would spend the winter before sailing to their final destination.

In general, emigrating by sea was more expensive than going overland, but offered slightly more comfort.

2

Construct a piece of useful furniture by lashing. Learn the following lashings:

2a

Square Lashing

Square lashing is a type of lashing knot used to bind poles together. Large structures can be built with a combination of square and diagonal lashing, with square lashing generally used on load bearing members and diagonal lashing usually applied to cross bracing. If any gap exists between the poles then diagonal lashing should be used.

Square lashing steps (see image at right);

Begin with a timber hitch on the vertical pole beneath the horizontal pole and tuck the loose end under the wrapping.
Wrap in a square fashion about three times around the poles.
Frap between the poles two or three times, pulling often to work the joint as tight as possible.
Tie two half hitches around the horizontal pole
Cinch the half hitches into a clove hitch, an additional clove hitch may be added if desired.

When the turns are taken around the vertical pole they should be inside the previous turns. The ones around the cross pole should be on the outside of the previous turns. This makes sure that the turns remain parallel and hence the maximum contact between the rope and wood is maintained.

Strength is improved if care is taken to lay the rope wraps and fraps in parallel with a minimum of crossing.

An alternative method is known as the Japanese square lashing. The Japanese square lashing is similar to the standard square lashing in appearance, but in fact is much faster and easier to use. One drawback to consider is that it is difficult to estimate how much rope is needed, which can lead to needlessly long working ends.

Begin by placing the middle of the rope under the bottom pole
Lay both ends over the top pole, and cross under the bottom pole. Do this about three times. Take care to keep the wrappings as tight as possible.
After the last wrap, cross the ropes again over the bottom pole and frap around the wrappings. Do this enough times (at least 3) to finish with a square knot.

A properly executed lashing is very strong and will last as long as the twine or rope maintains its integrity. A lashing stick can be used to safely tighten the joint.

2b

Diagonal Lashing

Diagonal lashing is a type of lashing used to bind spars or poles together, to prevent racking. It is usually applied to cross-bracing where the poles do not initially touch, but may by used on any poles that cross each other at a 45° to 90° angle. Large, semipermanent structures may be built with a combination of square lashing, which is stronger, and diagonal lashing.

Bailing twine has sufficient strength for some lashing applications but rope should be used for joining larger poles and where supporting people sized weights.

Diagonal lashing steps (see image at right);

Begin with a timber hitch around the juncture of the two poles.
Make three turns in each direction - tightening steadily as you go.
Make two frapping turns, tightening the joint as much a possible.
To end, make two half hitches
Cinch the half hitches into a clove hitch

A lashing stick can be used to safely tighten the joint. Strength will be improved if the first turn is 90° to the timber hitch and if care is taken to lay the rope turns parallel with no crossings.

2c

Shear Lashing

Two Pole: Start with a clove hitch on one pole; Wrap around both poles several times; Wrap between the poles several times; Finish off with a clove hitch on the other pole; It opens like a pair of shears.

Shear lashing uses two or three spars or poles, 15 - 20 feet of rope.

To tie a shear lashing, lay the two poles side-by-side and parallel to one another. Tie a clove hitch around one spar. Then wrap the free end of the rope around both spars about seven or eight times. Pull them as tight as you can. Then make three fraps around the lashing, and again, pull the rope as tight as you can. Finally, tie a clove hitch on the second spar.

Three Pole: Start with a clove hitch around one pole; Wrap around poles several times; Wrap between first and second pole several times; Wrap between second and third poles several times; Finish off with a clove hitch on the last pole; It can stand up like a tripod and hold a bowl, etc.

To use sheaer lashing around with three poles, lay all three poles side by side and parallel to one another. Tie a clove hitch on one pole, and wrap the rope around all three seven or eight times. Pull the rope tight. Make three fraps between two of the poles, then cross over and make three more between the other two poles. Pull the frapping as tight as you can and finish it off with a clove hitch.

2d

Continuous Lashing

Continuous Lashing is a fun technique. It is used to create shelves, tables, and other structures.

Comments on the pictures on the right'

Support poles under the 'surface' poles.
Attach string to the support pole using a clove hitch.
Clove hitch, up over surface pole, back down & cross under below support pole, and up over the second surface pole.
Detail of lashing as seen from top.
Detail of lashing as seen from bottom. Inset shows details of clove hitch, and cross-under below support pole.
View from the top.

Start with a string/rope that is 4 or 5 times longer than the length of your project.
Find the middle/center of the string and attach it to one of the support poles.
Put one of the surface sticks on top of the support pole and bring both ends of the string over this surface stick.
Continue back down below the support pole.
Cross the string under the support pole.
Bring it back up and over the next surface stick and then back down and cross under the support pole.
Repeat for the remaining surface sticks.
End off with a square knot when all the surface sticks are attached.

3

Do one of the following:

3a

Weave a basket using natural materials

See the Basketry honor for instruction.

3b

Make a pair of leather moccasins

Patterns for making moccasins can be found on the Internet, including:

http://www.jumaka.com/moccasins/MakingMoccasins/MoccasinInstructions.htm

3c

Make a lady's bonnet by hand sewing

This site has a pattern and instructions for making a slat bonnet. This style, along with its sister style the corded bonnet, was the most popular pioneer style. It was valued for its simplicity and effectiveness. Remember to sew it by hand!

http://www.thesewingacademy.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/2010Slats.pdf

3d

Make a simple toy used by the pioneers

Corn husk doll: A corn husk doll could be made by turning a corn husk inside-out and then binding it at the neckline. It was then dressed in miniature clothing.

Rolled Doll: This doll is simply made with a square of material of any size, folded in half and rolled up, a few stitches tack the roll of fabric closed, and a few more sew the top closed. Smaller bits of material should be rolled up and tacked to the doll's side to create arms. An original 1831 set of instructions and illustration can be seen in the American Girl's Book.

Whimmy diddle

Whimmy diddle: A gee-haw whimmy diddle is mechanical toy consisting of two wooden sticks. One has a series of notches cut transversely along its side and a smaller wooden stick or a propeller attached to the end with a nail or pin. This stick is held stationary in one hand with the notches up, and the other stick is rubbed rapidly back and forth across the notches. This causes the propeller to rotate. Sometimes also known as a "Hooey Stick" or a "VooDoo Stick". The word "Whammy" is sometimes "Whimmy" and the word "Diddle" sometimes "Doodle", giving it a possible 3 other names, and the "Gee-Haw" may also be dropped.

"Gee-Haw" refers to the fact that, by rubbing your finger against the notched stick while rubbing, the direction of the spinning propeller may be reversed. The operator may do this surreptitiously and yell "Gee" or "Haw" to make it appear that the propeller is reacting the commands. If you call it a "Hooey Stick", you would yell "hooey" each time you want the direction to change.

Hoop and stick

Hoop and stick: A large wooden hoop is rolled along by means of a stick. Skilled players can keep the hoop upright for lengthy periods of time and can do various tricks.
Whistle: See the Whistles honor for instruction.
Buzz Saw/Whirligig/Buzzer: This is easily made from a large 2 or 4 hole button and a single strand of strong thread or very fine cord. The thread is passed through two button holes (If it is a 4 hole button, use two diagonal holes rather than two holes side by side). Tie a knot in the string.

Buzz saw

To play with the buzz saw, hold and end of the string firmly in each hand so the button falls in the middle, then whip the string around like a jump rope till it is wound tightly. Pull the string so that the button spins, then quickly relax, pull the string again when the button is ready to spin the opposite way. With a little practice you can get a rhythm going and keep the button spinning.(A properly held buzz saw)

4

Know how to make flour from at least one wild plant for use in baking.

Flour can be made from clover blossoms. Gather about 8 liters of them and let them dry for two weeks. You can also put them in a low temperature oven for an hour or two. Once they are dry, grind them to powder with a mortar and pestle. This will make about 250 ml of flour. Mix half-and-half with wheat flour. It makes good pancakes.

You can also make flour with the roots or pollen of cattail and with acorns. Though acorns may be found in abundance, it is a lot of work to process it into flour. Other nuts (walnuts, hickories, hazelnuts, etc.), though often less abundant, are a little easier to process into flour as they do not require leaching to remove tannin. See the answers to the Edible Wild Plants honor for details.

5

Build a fire without matches. Use natural fire building materials. Keep the fire going for five minutes. You may use the following to start your fire:

5a

Flint and steel

Using flint and steel to light a fire is somewhat difficult. In order to use a flint and steel, you take a hard, sharp-edged rock in one hand and the steel striker in the other. The "flint" can be any hard, sharp rock, such as flint, jasper, or quartz. The striker can be any piece of high-carbon steel, such as a knife blade, though strikers made specifically for this purpose work much better.

The other essential item needed for starting a fire with flint and steel is a char cloth. A char cloth is a piece of partially burned cotton cloth. It can be made by cutting pieces of cotton into 1-inch squares, placing them in small a metal container (such as an Altoids tin), and placing that in a fire. If the cotton cannot get much oxygen, it will char rather than burn. Remove the tin from the fire when it quits smoking.

Before you begin, lay your fire so that when you ignite the tinder with the flint and steel, you can place it in the fire and get it going. Once the tinder is lit, it's too late to lay the fire, as the tinder will burn for only half a minute or so.

Place the char cloth on the flint even with a sharp edge, but not covering it. Hold the striker loosely in the right hand (assuming you are right-handed) and strike it against the flint (held in the other hand) as if you were trying to shave the striker with the rock. Flint is harder than steel, so it will indeed shave a piece of steel off the striker. When this piece of red-hot steel is shaved from the striker, it will fly off and hopefully land on the char cloth. You may need to repeat this several times before a spark does actually land on the char cloth, but when it does, the char cloth will catch the spark and begin to glow itself. You then take the glowing char cloth and set it against your tinder. Raw cotton and oakum work especially well as tinder. Blow on it gently until you get a flame. If you don't blow hard enough, the ember will not ignite the tinder. If you blow too hard, you will burn through the tinder without igniting it. Once it flames up, place it in the fire you have already laid.

5b

Friction

The "bow and drill" method is well-known and it is a lot of work. The bow is similar to that used for archery. To make such a bow, find a thin rope or flexible but sturdy bit of cordage, and a sturdy stick 60-120 cm long. Tie the rope to one end of the stick, and make another knot on the other end of the stick, with the rope between the ends not quite taut.

The drill (or spindle) is another straight stick, thin but strong, preferably stripped of bark, sharpened on the bottom end and rounded on the top. The center of the bowstring (rope) is wrapped around the drill, with the bow and spindle at right angles to each other. The end of the spindle is placed on a fireboard.

The fireboard is a piece of dry, softwood (cedar is excellent), with a conical impression in the top surface (such as might be made with a countersink). This impression is bored near the edge of the fireboard, and a notch is cut into it. The apex of the notch should be at the center of the impression. Place a card or a piece of bark beneath the notch to catch the hot wood which the spindle will grind off the fireboard.

The top of the spindle is rounded and smoothed, and placed in a socket made of a hardwood, bone, stone, or something similar. The socket should be smoothed and greased to reduce friction - you do not want to generate heat in the socket.

You should also have a piece of charcloth, which is useful when lighting any kind of primitive. A charcloth is a charred piece of cotton. You can make several by cutting up an old pair of jeans into 2"x1.5" rectangles. Place them in a tin (such as an Altoid tin) with a hole drilled in the top (or bottom). Put the tin (with the cloth inside) into a campfire and carefully remove after about 30 minutes. The tin will prevent the cloth from fully combusting because it limits the oxygen supply. Remove the pieces of cloth and bring them with you when you are ready to light a fire.

Once the equipment is ready, gather some tinder. This tinder should be easily lit. Dry grass, pine needles, and dryer lint all work well for this. Form the tinder pile into the shape of a bird's nest. Then make sure you have enough kindling on hand and an easily lit fire laid with fuel ready to go. When tinder bursts into flames, it is not the right time to start looking for kindling and fuel. Do this ahead of time.

Once the spindle is in place with its bottom tip in the impression in the fireboard, the top held firmly by the socket, and the cord wrapped around its center, the fire builder will move the bow back and forth quickly to rotate the spindle. Long strokes are better than short strokes.

If the socket is pressed too hard, the spindle will not spin. If it is not pressed hard enough, the spindle will come loose.

After only a few seconds of spinning the spindle, the fireboard should begin to smoke. Keep working the bow. After about a minute of smoke, look for a pile of hot wood powder to accumulate in the notch, caught on the card or bark placed beneath it. Stop working the bow and see if the wood powder continues to smoke. If it does not, work the bow again.

When the wood powder continues to smoke after the spindle stops, carefully pick up the card or bark, slide the wood powder into the center of the charcloth, and gently blow on the wood powder. Slowly increase the strength of the air stream blown into the tinder. It should glow red, and as more air is forced into it. In short order, the ember should ignite the charcloth. When it does, slide the charcloth into the tinder and continue blowing. Eventually when you take your next breath, the tinder pile will burst into flames. Place the burning tinder beneath the kindling and tend the fire as you would any newly lit fire.

5c

Electric spark

Note: This technique, though listed as an option in the official requirements, was not available to the pioneers. We therefore recommend that it not be used for teaching this honor.

Making fire from an electric spark can be dangerous and should only be used in an emergency. You will need to set up some tinder ahead of time and then prepare to throw an electrical spark. This can be done with jumper cables from an automobile by connecting one end of the terminals to the battery, and then quickly touch the other ends together next to the tinder. Do not hold the terminals together for more than an instant or you will drain the battery.

5d

Curved glass

A piece of curved glass can sometimes be used to focus the rays of the sun, igniting the tinder. The glass must be smooth enough to not overly-distort the point of light. A magnifying glass is the typical sort of lens used for this, but there are other possibilities in a pinch.

It is possible, for instance, to use a piece of ice shaped into a sphere to do the same job. Getting the piece of ice round enough and, clear enough, and smooth enough to ignite a fire, however may prove to be difficult.

Others have reported success in polishing the bottom of a soda can, and using it as a mirror to reflect the sun's rays onto a point. Again, it takes a lot of patience to polish the can well enough to be able to light a fire this way, but it has been done. The polishing material can be any fine rouge-like substance, such as clay. The surprising thing about this particular technique is that a chocolate bar has been used as the polishing compound!

5e

Metal match

The term metal match, or 'firesteel' has become synonymous with so called 'artificial flints' which are metal rods of varying size composed of ferrocerium, an alloy of iron and mischmetal. Mischmetal is an alloy primarily of cerium that will generate sparks when struck. Iron is added to improve the strength of the rods. Small shavings are torn off the rod with either a supplied metal scraper, a piece of hacksaw blade, or, commonly, the back of a knife ground at a suitable angle. These shavings then ignite at high temperatures, and they are much more effective than their historical equivalent.

While it takes practice and properly prepared tinder to create a sustained fire, the modern firesteel is considered by survival instructors and serious outdoorspeople to be one of the most reliable ways of making fire in severe conditions. Two good examples of firesteel are made by Light My Fire and Blastmatch. The sparks produced by these products are extremely hot, 3000 C°, and easily light toilet paper or small pieces of wood or commercial tinder products.

Traditionally a flint and steel were used; however, the flint was not the important part. With a proper striker, you can get sparks using any hard, non-porous rock that has a sharp edge, even petrified wood. The spark comes from chipping small pieces of steel off the striker; finely divided metals ignite immediately in air, with steel burning at yellow-white heat.

Charpaper can be used as an intermediate step between the striking and the tinder. Charpaper is traditionally made from cotton that has been processed into charcoal. You can make charpaper by taking several patches of cotton denim (from an old pair of jeans for example) and laying them one atop another inside a small tin (such as the ones in which Altoids are packaged). Drill a 3 mm diameter hole in the lid of the tin. Then throw it into a campfire. It should smoke, but not ignite, as not enough oxygen can get into the tin. Once it stops smoking, you can carefully remove it from the fire and let it cool. You should have several charpapers inside, ready for the next fire you light.

When a spark comes into contact with charpaper, it makes the charpaper glow, but the charpaper will not ignite. After the charpaper glows, you put it against your tender and blow. This works much better than attempting to get a spark to stay on the tinder. Igniting the tinder from the glowing charpaper takes practice. Too much oxygen and the tinder is consumed without bursting into flame; not enough oxygen, and it simply doesn't light. But if you get it just right, it will burst into flames rather suddenly. Be ready for this, as you will then be holding a burning wad of tinder in your hands. Place it in your pre-laid fire immediately.

5f

Compressed air

Note: As with the "Electric spark" technique, this method of fire-building was unknown to the pioneers. Again, we recommend against using this option for meeting the requirement.

In the Pacific Islands near the Philippines, there is a fire building technique that uses compressed air to ignite a small piece of tinder. The technology to do this is similar to a diesel engine and is called a sulpak by the islanders or fire piston by the rest of the world.

The sulpak is usually made out of a water buffalo horn or very dense wood. There are two parts to the device, a piston with a pad on the end, and a cylinder. The piston has a small divot in the end of it that holds a piece of tinder (char cloth works well). Also there is a small groove near the end of the piston that is wrapped with thread to create o-ring. The piston is normally lubricated with pig fat, but Crisco, and Vaseline work well.

The piston is smeared with the lubricant, and a small amount of lubricant is placed in the divot at the end of the piston. The char cloth is then pressed into the grease in the divot.

Push the end of the piston into the cylinder about a half inch. Then hold the cylinder in one hand and hit the pad of the piston with the other. Then pull the piston back out quickly and blow on the tinder. If it doesn't glow immediately you will need to try the process again, or check to make sure that the "o-ring" is tight enough.

There is not enough tinder to catch much on fire, so the best thing to do is light a larger chunk of char cloth and then use this to light the other tinder that will be part of the fire.

It is very difficult to manufacturer the sulpak in the wilderness, so this technique is not good for an emergency unless you just happen to have a sulpak with you. Many outdoor wilderness adventurers will carry their sulpak with them when they go camping and hiking.

Outdoors Magazine.com has a good article with pictures of how to make and use a fire starting piston.

6

Show axmanship knowledge in the following:

Parts of an axe

6a

Describe the best types of axes.

The "best" type of axe depends on what you're trying to do with it.

Felling axe — Cuts across the grain of wood, as in the felling of trees. In single or double bit (the bit is the cutting edge of the head) forms and many different weights, shapes, handle types and cutting geometries to match the characteristics of the material being cut.
Splitting Axe — Used to split with the grain of the wood. Splitting axe bits are more wedge shaped. This shape causes the axe to rend the fibres of the wood apart, without having to cut through them, especially if the blow is delivered with a twisting action at impact.
Broad axe — Used with the grain of the wood in precision splitting. Broad axe bits are chisel-shaped (one flat and one bevelled edge) facilitating more controlled work.

6b

Show how to sharpen an ax properly.

It is best to sharpen an axe by hand rather than using an electric grinder. A grinder will heat the blade and ruin the axe's temper. This will cause the bit to soften making it impossible for the axe to hold a sharp edge during typical use. If the axe is very dull or has visible notches in the blade, start sharpening with a file. The file should be held at an angle and run over the length of the blade. Sharpen both sides until the notches are gone. If the axes just needs a touch-up, you can use a sharpening stone. Wet the stone with water (or if you have an oilstone, with oil). This will cause the filings to "float" away an prevent them from clogging the pores in the stone (making it smoother and thus, less effective at sharpening).

6c

Know and practice safety rules in the use of an ax.

Be sure you have firm footing before swinging an axe or a hatchet, and be sure no one is within six feet of you to the sides or to the rear, and within twelve feet of you towards your front.

Be sure that the arc through which you swing the axe is clear, especially of overhead obstructions such as branches.

Axe heads do occasionally come off at times (2 Kings 6:5), and they are very dangerous when they do. Check that the axe head is tight to the handle before using it, and if you find that it is loose, take steps to correct this.

When handing an axe to another person, offer them the handle. Carry the axe so that if you were to trip, the blade would point away from you. Put the axe in a sheath (if it has one) when it is not in use.

6d

Know the proper way to use an ax.

Do not hammer an axe into a piece of wood. An axe is for cutting, and should not be used as a wedge. It should also not be used as a sledge hammer. Practice aiming the axe until you get good at it. When you can hit what you aim at, your use of the axe will be far more efficient. Do not chop into the ground - this practice will quickly dull an axe. Apply a bit of oil to the axe head to prevent rust.

6e

Properly cut in two a log at least eight inches (20.3 cm) thick.

Do not lay the log directly on the ground. Otherwise the axe blows will push the log into the ground. Instead, lay it on another small log (three inches in diameter is good). Strike the log to be cut at the point where it is in contact with the supporting log. Otherwise, the log may flip up and strike you or a bystander. This can cause a serious injury, so be watchful. Proceed by chopping a "vee" into the log, alternating cuts on the left and on the right. The width of the vee should be equal to the diameter of the log. Once the vee penetrates halfway through the log, turn it over and cut another on the opposite side until the two vees meet.

6f

Properly split wood that is at least eight inches (20.3 cm) in diameter and one foot (30.5 cm) long.

Unless the log you wish to split has been sawn and has a flat end, it will be very difficult to split it. Steady it on its end, and make sure it can stand on its own. Instruct everyone to clear away from you, and do not swing the axe if anyone is near. Grip the end of the axe handle with both hands, and gently lay the blade of the axe on the top of the log, on the edge nearest where you are standing. Fully extend your arms when you do this, and back up if necessary. Spread your feet apart by about the same distance as your shoulders are wide, and make sure your footing is firm. If you are right-handed, slide your right hand towards the head of the axe as you draw it towards yourself. Take aim, and draw the axe over your head, bringing it down mightily as your right-hand slides down the handle. The right hand should meet the left about the same time the axe strikes the log. Note how the axe strikes the wood farther away from you than where you were resting it at the beginning. This is why you should aim for the edge nearest you. If you overshoot the log, you will bring the handle down on the edge of the log and damage the axe. Do that enough, and you'll need to replace the handle.

When splitting a log, try to divide it into two equal masses. If you try to split off a smaller segment, the split will run out, and the piece you remove will be smaller on one end than on the other.

To split a small piece of wood (less than 10 cm in diameter), place the blade of a hatchet on the end of the log, raise the log and the hatchet together, and bring them down sharply on another log or a rock. When they strike the second log, the hatchet's momentum will drive it into the log. Raise the pair again, and strike repeatedly until the log splits apart. Do not steady the log with one hand and strike it with the other. If you miss the log and hit your hand, you will cause an unnecessary emergency.

7

Do two of the following:

7a

Make a ten-foot (3.0 meters) rope from natural material or twine.

Rope-making apparatus

Making rope requires some simple apparatus which you can make yourself easily enough. The first apparatus (we'll call it the twister) is used for twisting three strands of twine (or smaller rope). When making the twister, clamp the two boards that form the handles together tightly and drill three holes through both at the same time. This will ensure that they line up. The hook/crank portion of the twister can be made from coat hanger wire. First make the two 90° bends in the center, then pass them through the holes in the handles. Finally, form the hooks on one end and the other 90° bend on the other. (This final bend prevents the crank from slipping out of the holes in the handle).

As the strands are twisted, they will tend to grab one another and twist together. To make rope, this tendency has to be controlled. This is done with a second apparatus (we'll call it the separator). It consists of a board with three holes drilled in it, forming the points of an equilateral triangle. These points should be at least six inches away from one another, and should be large enough to pass the strands of twine through.

To make rope, cut three pieces of twine about 33% longer than the desired rope. Pass each strand through a hole in the separator, then tie a non-slip loop in the end of each (a figure-eight on a bight works well for this). We will call this end of the strands the free end. Slip these loops over a hook of some sort, and pull the strands straight. Bunch the ends opposite the loops together, and tie them off, again in a loop (and again, a figure-eight on a bight works well for this). We will call this end the bound end. Make sure that the three strands are the same length from one loop to the other. Hand the bound end to a helper, then attach the loops on the free end to the hooks on the twister. Pull the twister away from the bound end (still affixed firmly to another hook) until the strands are straight and tight. Then slide the separator towards the common end. Start cranking the twister so that the hooks rotate. As you crank, your helper will allow the three strands on his side of the separator to twist together. As they do this, the helper will slide the separator towards you, going only as fast as the strands bind to one another. Be careful to keep the strands tight as you do this so that they do not bind to one another on your end of the separator. Continue twisting until the separator reaches the twister. Then tie a knot in the free end of the rope, unhook it from the twister, and slide the separator off. Tie a stopper knot, or bind the end with tape. Then cut off the few inches of untwisted strand that remain (or make a back splice). Finish the opposite end in the same manner. Voilá! You now have a rope!

Guide to making rope from natural materials and no tools. Another technique.

7b

Tie ten knots useful to the pioneer and tell how they were used.

Bowline

Use: This knot doesn't jam or slip when tied properly. It can be tied around a person's waist and used to lift him, because the loop will not tighten under load. In sailing, the bowline is used to tie a halyard to a sail head.

How to tie:

Make the overhand loop with the end held toward you, then pass end through loop.
Now pass end up behind the standing part, then down through the loop again.
Draw up tight.

Bowline on a bight

Use: This makes a secure loop in the middle of a rope which does not slip.

How to tie:
A bight is the middle part of the rope (not the ends)

In the middle of a rope, form a small loop.
Thread the bight through the loop.
Spread out the bight a little.
Pass this down and around the whole knot.
Continue until it come back to the neck where it started.
Tighten the bight to complete the knot. Tighten carefully so that you don't get a kind of slip knot.

Clove hitch

Use: This knot is the "general utility" hitch for when you need a quick, simple method of fastening a rope around a post, spar or stake (like tying wicks to sticks in Candle Making) or another rope (as in Macramé)

How to tie:

Make a turn with the rope around the object and over itself.
Take a second turn with the rope around the object.
Pull the end up under the second turn so it is between the rope and the object. Tighten by pulling on both ends.

Double fisherman's knot
Use: Use the double fisherman's knot to tie together two ropes of unequal sizes. This knot and the triple fisherman's knot are the variations used most often in rock climbing, but other uses include search and rescue.

Figure Eight
Use: This knot is ideal for keeping the end of a rope from running out of tackle or pulley. How to tie: Make underhand loop, bringing end around and over the standing part. Pass end under, then up through the loop. Draw up tight.

Prusik knot

Use: A Prusik (aka Prussik or Prussic) is a friction hitch used in climbing, canyoneering, caving, rope rescue and by arborists to grab a rope (sometimes referred to as a rope-grab). The term Prusik is used both for the knot, for the loops of cord, and for the action (to prusik).

A Prusik rope is a circular loop with a circumference of 20 to 100 cm depending on its intended use. Two Prusik ropes are tied to another rope which is anchored above. When the Prusik knot is under tension, it grabs the rope to which it is tied. When not under tension, it is easily moved. The climber places one foot into each loop, and shifts all of his or her weight to one of them, releasing the tension on the other. The rope without tension is then slid upwards on the vertical rope. The climber then shifts his or her weight to the other loop and slides the first one up. This is repeated until the rope has been ascended. Prusiks will work around two ropes, even two ropes of different diameters. Prusiks provide a high-strength and relatively fail-safe (i.e., they will slip before damaging the rope or breaking) attachment, and are used in some rope-rescue techniques. Prusiks are good to use in hauling systems where multiple rope-grabs may be needed, and where mechanical rope-grabs are not available.

Although the Prusik Climb technique may be called old-school by some, the US Army still includes it in its annual Best Ranger competition. Rangers in the competition routinely make it up a 90 foot rope in under a minute.

How to tie:
The Prusik is tied by wrapping the prusik loop around the rope a number of times (depending on the materials, but usually 3-5 times), and then back through itself, forming a barrel around the rope, with a tail hanging out the middle. When the tail is weighted the turns tighten around the main rope and grab. When weight is removed the loop can be slid along the rope by placing a hand directly on the barrel and pushing. The trick is, if it grabs well, then it is hard to slide along the rope. Breaking the Prusik free from the rope after it has been weighted can be difficult, and is easiest done by pushing the bow, being the loop of cord which runs from the top wrap, over the knot to the bottom wrap, along the tail a little. This loosens the grip of the hitch and makes movement easier.

Step 1
Step 2
Step 3
Step 4
Locked while holding tension.
Slides readily without tension.

Sheepshank
Use: The sheepshank knot is used to shorten a length of rope. It comes undone easily unless it is under tension. WARNING: Keep this knot under tension or it will come untied.

Square Knot

Use: Also known as a Reef knot, the Square Knot is easily learned and useful for many situations. It is most commonly used to tie two lines together at the ends. This knot is used at sea in reefing and furling sails. It is used in first aid to tie off a bandage or a sling because the knot lies flat.

How to tie:

Pass left end over and under right end.
Curve what is now the left end toward the right and cross what is now the right end over and under the left.
Draw up tight by pulling one end and line away from the other end and line.

WARNING: Do not rely on this knot to hold weight in a life or death situation. It has been known to fail.

Taut-line hitch

Use: The Taut-Line Hitch is an adjustable loop knot for use on lines under tension. It is useful when the length of a line will need to be periodically adjusted in order to maintain tension. It is made by tying a Rolling hitch around the standing part after passing around an anchor object. Tension is maintained by sliding the hitch to adjust size of the loop, thus changing the effective length of the standing part without retying the knot. When under tension, however, the knot will grip the cord and will be difficult to cause to slip.

It is typically used for securing tent lines in outdoor activities involving camping, by arborists when climbing trees, for creating adjustable moorings in tidal areas, and to secure loads on vehicles. A versatile knot, the Taut-line hitch was even used by astronauts during STS-82, the second Space Shuttle mission to repair the Hubble Space Telescope.

How to tie:

Pass the working end around the anchor object. Bring it back along side of the standing part and make a half-hitch around the standing part.
Continue with another wrap inside the loop, effectively making a round turn around the standing part.
Complete with a half-hitch outside the loop, made in the same direction as the first two wraps, as for a clove hitch.
Dress by snugging the hitch firmly around the standing part. Load slowly and adjust as necessary.

Two half hitches
Use: This reliable knot is quickly tied and is the hitch most often used in mooring. How to tie: Pass end of rope around post or other object. Wrap short end of rope under and over long part of rope, pushing the end down through the loop. This is a half hitch. Repeat on long rope below first half hitch and draw up tight.

7c

Using rope and natural materials, make one device for moving heavy objects.

You can make a make-shift block and tackle with nothing more than two sturdy ropes and a tree (or other stationary object). First, take a short length of rope and tie one end around the object you wish to move. Then tie a loop at the other end.

Tie one end of the longer rope around a tree using a bowline. Then tie a slip knot in this rope near the tree. Take the running end of the rope and thread it through the loop you made in the first rope. Then thread it through the slip knot you tied near the tree.

All that remains is to pull on the running end of the longer rope. This setup provides a two-to-one mechanical advantage. For every two meters you pull on the long rope, the object will move one meter closer to the tree.

7d

Construct an adequate and comfortable latrine.

There are two components to a camping latrine: the "commode", and an enclosure.

Enclosure: The purpose of the enclosure is to provide privacy. It can be as simple as hanging tarps from rope stretched between trees and well-secured. You can also make a teepee from tarps and poles, or build a more elaborate structure from poles using lashings, and covering that with tarps. Another possibility is to use an old tent with its floor removed.

Commode: There are many ways to build the commode portion of a latrine. One common approach is to mount a toilet seat on some sort of structure, such as a small log cabin-like structure built using 3-inch (8 cm) diameter logs. It is also possible to build a structure from lumber fastened together with hinges so that it can be collapsed at will (but remain uncollapsed otherwise!) for transport. Another way to build the commode is by lashing poles together to make a couple of horizontal rails - one for sitting on, and another as a back rest. However the commode is built, it is almost always situated over a hole dug in the ground to hold the waste. The depth of this hole depends on how much usage the latrine is expected to accommodate. Leave the dirt pile and a shovel inside the enclosure so that the waste may be gradually buried as it is created. This will hold down the smell. Be sure to completely bury the hole when breaking camp.

8

Explain the need for proper sanitation relating to solid and human waste and the washing of body, clothes, and dishes.

If human waste is not dealt with properly, it can cause disease. It is a small matter for uncontrolled human waste to enter the water supply where it will cause harmful bacteria to multiply. When this happens, anyone using the water internally (i.e., drinking, washing dishes, brushing teeth, etc.) will ingest the bacteria and get sick. Dysentery is a medical condition caused by improper sanitation, and it involves uncontrolled, bloody diarrhea. This causes the body to dehydrate leading to death.

Keeping your body clean is also very important. If you are filthy and you injure yourself, breaking the skin, the filth will readily enter your bloodstream where it can make you sick and cause a painful infection. Infections can kill you if they left untreated.

Dirty clothing can lead to parasitic infestations, such as lice.

Dirty dishes breed bacteria which feast on any food left stuck to the dish. It is then easily transferred to the body when the dish is used for cooking or for eating.

9

Assist in the construction of a ten-foot (3.0 meters) long log or rope bridge, using lashings.

Log Bridge

The simplest way to make this bridge is with poles. Cut two long poles at least 15 cm in diameter and long enough to span the item to be bridged. Then cut several smaller poles at least 5cm in diameter and approximately 60 cm long. Place the long poles over the gap to be spanned such that the short poles can lay across them, overhanging by 3-5cm on both sides. Then use continuous lashing to attach the short poles to the long ones. A rope hand rail can be added for additional balance.

Rope Bridge

10

Know four ways to keep the wilderness beautiful.

Pick up litter.
Stay on the trail.
Use "Leave no Trace" camping techniques.
Write letters to your elected government representatives about environmental issues.
Prefer pollution-free recreation activities (biking and hiking over ATV's, canoes and kayaks over motor boats and jet skis, cross country skis over snow mobiles).
Take only pictures, leave only footprints. That means you don't pick wildflowers or destroy plants. It's generally OK to harvest the fruiting body of a plant (i.e., berries).
Use a camp stove instead of a campfire when camping. This will eliminate the need to gather firewood and will not leave a fire ring.

11

Do two of the following:

11a

Make a wax candle or other form of pioneer light source

See the Candlemaking honor for instruction. Why not earn it while you're at it?

11b

Make a batch of soap

Note that this is also a major requirement for the Soap Craft - Advanced honor.

References

Pioneering
Recreation

Skill Level 123
Approval authority General Conference	Year of Introduction 1956
See also Wilderness Master Award Outdoor Leadership Oregon Trail