|
|
| (145 intermediate revisions by 24 users not shown) |
| Line 1: |
Line 1: |
| − | {{redirect|Amarantus|the ancient Greek writer|Amarantus of Alexandria|other uses|Amaranth (disambiguation)}}
| + | <noinclude><translate><!--T:1--> |
| − | {{taxobox
| + | </noinclude> |
| − | |name = ''Amaranthus''
| |
| − | |image = Amaranthus tricolor0.jpg
| |
| − | |image_caption = ''Amaranthus caudatus''
| |
| − | |regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| |
| − | |unranked_divisio = [[Angiosperms]]
| |
| − | |unranked_classis = [[Eudicots]]
| |
| − | |unranked_ordo = [[Core eudicots]]
| |
| − | |ordo = [[Caryophyllales]]
| |
| − | |familia = [[Amaranthaceae]]
| |
| − | |subfamilia = [[Amaranthoideae]]
| |
| − | |genus = '''''Amaranthus'''''
| |
| − | |genus_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]]
| |
| − | |subdivision_ranks = Species
| |
| − | |subdivision = See text.
| |
| − | |}}'''''Amaranthus''''', collectively known as '''amaranth''', is a cosmopolitan [[genus]] of herbs. Approximately 60 [[species]] are recognized, with [[inflorescence]]s and foliage ranging from purple and red to gold. Members of this genus share many characteristics and uses with members of the closely related genus ''[[Celosia]]''.
| |
| | | | |
| − | Although several species are often considered [[weed]]s, people around the world value amaranths as [[leaf vegetable]]s, [[cereal]]s, and [[ornamental plant|ornamentals]].
| + | <!--T:6--> |
| | + | {{ |
| | | | |
| − | The ultimate root of "amaranth" is the [[Greek language|Greek]] {{polytonic|ἀμάραντος}}<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%234949 Liddell & Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, s.v. ἀμάραντος]</ref> (''amarantos'') "unfading" with the Greek word for "flower" ἄνθος (''anthos'') factoring into the word's development as "amaranth" - the more correct "amarant" is an archaic variant.
| + | <!--T:7--> |
| | + | EWP |
| | + | | name = Amaranth |
| | + | | image = Amaranthus tricolor0.jpg |
| | + | | description = Amaranth, is a cosmopolitan genus of annual or short-lived perennial plants. Catkin-like cymes of densely packed flowers grow in summer or autumn. Approximately 60 species are recognized, with inflorescences and foliage ranging from purple and red to green or gold. |
| | | | |
| − | ==Systematics==
| + | <!--T:2--> |
| − | ''Amaranthus'' shows a wide variety of morphological diversity among and even within certain species. Although the family ([[Amaranthaceae]]) is distinctive, the [[genus]] has few distinguishing characters among the 70 species included.<ref name="multiple">{{cite journal | doi = 10.1111/j.1095-8339.2007.00665.x | author = Juan ''et al.'' | year = 2007 | title = Electrophoretic characterization of ''Amaranthus'' L. seed proteins and its systematic implication | url = | journal = Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society | volume = 155 | issue = | pages = 57–63 }}</ref> This complicates [[taxonomy]] and ''Amaranthus'' has generally been considered among systematists as a "difficult" genus.<ref name = "Costea">{{cite journal | doi = 10.2307/3088717 | author = Costea M, DeMason D | year = 2001 | title = Stem morphology and anatomy in Amaranthus L. (Amaranthaceae)- Taxonomic significance | url = | journal = Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society | volume = 128 | issue = 3| pages = 254–281 }}</ref>
| + | Although several species are often considered weeds, people around the world value amaranths as leaf vegetables and cereals. |
| | + | | range = Worldwide in temperate and tropical zones |
| | + | | seasons = Summer, Fall |
| | + | | use = Amaranth species are cultivated and consumed as a leaf vegetable in many parts of the world. The seeds can be collected and used as a grain (or ground into flour). |
| | | | |
| | + | <!--T:3--> |
| | + | To maximize seed harvest, shake the near-mature seed heads into a paper bag or onto a canvas. If the growing area is large, it is faster to cut the heads all at once when most of the seeds are ripe. The fully ripened heads tend to drop their seeds. |
| | | | |
| − | Formerly, Sauer (1955) classified the genus into 2 sub-genera, differentiating only between [[Plant sexuality#Individual plant sexuality|monoecious]] and [[Plant sexuality#Individual plant sexuality|dioecious]] species: ''Acnida'' (L.) Aellen ex K.R. Robertson and ''Amaranthus''.<ref name="Costea" /> Although this classification was widely accepted, further infrageneric classification was (and still is) needed to differentiate this widely diverse group.
| + | <!--T:4--> |
| | + | Dry for a week and thresh the heads with gloved hands or feet on canvas as the chaff is somewhat prickly. The seeds may be lost when winnowing because the chaff and seeds are of similar size and the seeds are of a light weight. If you heap uncleaned seeds in a bowl and toss them, the light debris will concentrate on the top and can be blown away. Repeat this until only seeds remain. |
| | | | |
| − | Currently, ''Amaranthus'' includes 3 recognized sub-genera and 70 species, although species numbers are questionable due to [[Hybrid (biology)|hybridization]] and species concepts.<ref>Judd et al. (2008). Plant Systematics: A Phylogenetic Approach, Third Edition. Sinauer Associates, Inc. Sunderland, MA</ref> Infrageneric classification focuses on inflorescence, flower characters and whether a species is monoecious/dioecious, as in the Sauer (1955) suggested classification.<ref name="multiple" /> A modified infrageneric classification of ''Amaranthus'' was published by Mosyakin & Robertson (1996) and includes 3 subgenera: ''Acnida'', ''Amaranthus'', and ''Albersia''. The taxonomy is further differentiated by sections within each of the sub-genera.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Mosyakin & Robertson |year=1996 |title=New infrageneric taxa and combinations in ''Amaranthus'' (Amaranthaceae) |journal=Ann. Bot. Fennici |volume=33 |pages=275–281}}</ref>
| + | <!--T:5--> |
| − | | + | }} |
| − | ==Species==
| + | <noinclude></translate></noinclude> |
| − | | |
| − | * ''[[Amaranthus acanthochiton]]'' – greenstripe
| |
| − | * ''Amaranthus acutilobus'' – sharp-lobe amaranth; is a synonym of ''[[Amaranthus viridis]]''<ref>[http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl/record/kew-2632641 The Plant List - Amaranthus acutilobus]</ref>
| |
| − | * ''[[Amaranthus albus]]'' – white pigweed, prostrate pigweed, pigweed amaranth
| |
| − | * ''[[Amaranthus arenicola]]'' – sandhill amaranth
| |
| − | * ''[[Amaranthus australis]]'' – southern amaranth
| |
| − | * ''[[Amaranthus bigelovii]]'' – Bigelow's amaranth
| |
| − | * ''[[Amaranthus blitoides]]'' – mat amaranth, prostrate amaranth, prostrate pigweed
| |
| − | * ''[[Amaranthus blitum]]'' – purple amaranth
| |
| − | * ''[[Amaranthus brownii]]'' – Brown's amaranth
| |
| − | * ''[[Amaranthus californicus]]'' – California amaranth, California pigweed
| |
| − | * ''[[Amaranthus cannabinus]]'' – tidal-marsh amaranth
| |
| − | * ''[[Amaranthus caudatus]]'' – love-lies-bleeding, pendant amaranth, tassel flower, quilete
| |
| − | * ''[[Amaranthus chihuahuensis]]'' – chihuahuan amaranth
| |
| − | * ''[[Amaranthus chlorostachys]]''
| |
| − | * ''[[Amaranthus crassipes]]'' – spreading amaranth
| |
| − | * ''[[Amaranthus crispus]]'' – crispleaf amaranth
| |
| − | * ''[[Amaranthus cruentus]]'' – purple amaranth, red amaranth, Mexican grain amaranth
| |
| − | * ''[[Amaranthus deflexus]]'' – large-fruit amaranth
| |
| − | * ''[[Amaranthus dubius]]'' – spleen amaranth, khada sag
| |
| − | * ''[[Amaranthus fimbriatus]]'' – fringed amaranth, fringed pigweed
| |
| − | * ''[[Amaranthus floridanus]]'' – Florida amaranth
| |
| − | * ''[[Amaranthus gangeticus]]'' – elephant head amaranth
| |
| − | *'' [[Amaranthus graecizans]]''
| |
| − | * ''[[Amaranthus greggii]]'' – Gregg's amaranth
| |
| − | * ''[[Amaranthus hybridus]]'' – smooth amaranth, smooth pigweed, red amaranth
| |
| − | * ''[[Amaranthus hypochondriacus]]'' – Prince-of-Wales-feather, princess feather
| |
| − | * ''[[Amaranthus leucocarpus]]''
| |
| − | * ''[[Amaranthus lineatus]]'' – Australian amaranth
| |
| − | * ''[[Amaranthus lividus]]''
| |
| − | * ''[[Amaranthus mantegazzianus]]'' – Quinoa de Castilla
| |
| − | * ''[[Amaranthus minimus]]''
| |
| − | * ''[[Amaranthus muricatus]]'' – African amaranth
| |
| − | * ''[[Amaranthus obcordatus]]'' – Trans-Pecos amaranth
| |
| − | * ''[[Amaranthus oleraceous]]'' – Kosala Sag
| |
| − | * ''[[Amaranthus palmeri]]'' – Palmer's amaranth, palmer pigweed, careless weed
| |
| − | * ''[[Amaranthus paniculus]]'' – Reuzen amarant
| |
| − | * ''[[Amaranthus polygonoides]]'' – tropical amaranth
| |
| − | * ''[[Amaranthus powellii]]'' – green amaranth, Powell amaranth, Powell pigweed
| |
| − | * ''[[Amaranthus pringlei]]'' – Pringle's amaranth
| |
| − | * ''[[Amaranthus pumilus]]'' – seaside amaranth
| |
| − | * ''[[Amaranthus quitensis]]'' – ataco, sangorache
| |
| − | * ''[[Amaranthus retroflexus]]'' – red-root amaranth, redroot pigweed, common amaranth
| |
| − | * ''[[Amaranthus rudis]]'' – tall amaranth, common waterhemp
| |
| − | * ''[[Amaranthus scleropoides]]'' – bone-bract amaranth
| |
| − | * ''[[Amaranthus spinosus]]'' – spiny amaranth, prickly amaranth, thorny amaranth
| |
| − | * ''[[Amaranthus standleyanus]]''
| |
| − | * ''[[Amaranthus thunbergii]]'' – Thunberg's amaranth
| |
| − | * ''[[Amaranthus torreyi]]'' – Torrey's amaranth
| |
| − | * ''[[Amaranthus tricolor]]'' – Joseph's-coat
| |
| − | * ''[[Amaranthus tuberculatus]]'' – rough-fruit amaranth, tall waterhemp
| |
| − | * ''[[Amaranthus viridis]]'' – slender amaranth, green amaranth
| |
| − | * ''[[Amaranthus watsonii]]'' – Watson's amaranth
| |
| − | * ''[[Amaranthus wrightii]]'' – Wright's amaranth
| |
| − | | |
| − | ==Uses==
| |
| − | === Amaranth seed ===
| |
| − | Several species are raised for amaranth "grain" in [[Asia]] and the [[Americas]]. This should more correctly be termed "[[pseudograin]]" (see below). [[Amaranth grain]] contains no gluten and is safe to consume for individuals with [[coeliac disease]].<ref>{{cite journal | title = Recent advances in the formulation of gluten-free cereal-based products | journal = Trends in Food Science & Technology | first = E. | last = Gallagher | coauthors = T. R. Gormley, E. K. Arendt | volume = 15 | issue = 3-4 | pages = 143–152| id = | url = http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0924224403002590 | accessdate = 2011-06-26 | doi=10.1016/j.tifs.2003.09.012}}</ref>
| |
| − | | |
| − | Ancient amaranth grains still used to this day include the three species, ''[[Amaranthus caudatus]]'', ''[[Amaranthus cruentus]]'', and ''[[Amaranthus hypochondriacus]]''.<ref>Costea et al. (2006). Delimitation of Amaranthus cruentus L. and Amaranthus caudatus L. using micromorphology and AFLP analysis: an application in germplasm identification. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution 53: 1625-1633.</ref> Although amaranth was cultivated on a large scale in ancient Mexico, Guatemala, and Peru, nowadays it is only cultivated on a small scale there, along with India, China, Nepal, and other tropical countries; thus, there is potential for further cultivation in those countries, as well as in the U.S. In a 1977 artiacle in ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'', amaranth was described as "the crop of the future."<ref>Marx (1977). Speaking of Science: Amaranth: A Comeback for the Food of the Aztecs? Science 198(4312): 40.</ref> It has been proposed as an inexpensive native crop that could be cultivated by indigenous people in rural areas for several reasons:
| |
| − | # It is easily harvested.
| |
| − | # It is highly tolerant of arid environments, which are typical of most subtropical and some tropical regions{{citation needed|date=September 2011}}, and
| |
| − | # Its seeds are a good source of protein, rich in essential amino acids such as [[lysine]], while being a poor source of essential amino acids such as [[leucine]] and [[threonine]]. Common grains such as wheat and corn are rich in amino acids that amaranth lacks; thus, amaranth and other grains can complement each other.<ref name=mpoll>De Macvean & Pöll (1997). Chapter 8: Ethnobotany. Tropical Tree Seed Manual, USDA Forest Service, edt. J.A Vozzo.</ref><ref name=Tucker/>
| |
| − | # The seeds of ''Amaranthus'' species contain about thirty percent more protein than cereals like rice, sorghum and rye.<ref name=mpoll/> In cooked and edible forms, amaranth is competitive with wheat germ and oats - higher in some nutrients, lower in others.<ref name=usdamrth>{{cite web|title=USDA nutrient database, search for: cooked amaranth, wheat germ, oats |url=http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search/}}</ref>
| |
| − | # It is easy to cook. As befits its weedy life history, amaranth grains grow very rapidly and their large seedheads can weigh up to 1 kilogram and contain a half-million seeds in three species of amaranth.<ref name = "Tucker">Tucker, J. (1986). Amaranth: the once and future crop. Bioscience 36(1): 9-13.</ref>
| |
| − | | |
| − | '''Kiwicha''', as amaranth is known today in the [[Andes]], was one of the staple foodstuffs of the [[Inca]]s. Known to the [[Aztec]]s as '''huautli''', it is thought to have represented up to 80% of their caloric consumption before the conquest.<ref>[http://mexicanfood1.wordpress.com/ Mexican Food's Pre-Columbian Origin and History]</ref> Another important use of amaranth throughout [[Mesoamerica]] was to prepare ritual drinks and foods.
| |
| − | To this day, amaranth grains are toasted much like [[popcorn]] and mixed with [[honey]], [[molasses]] or [[chocolate]] to make a treat called ''alegría'', meaning "joy" in Spanish.
| |
| − | [[Diego Duran]] described the festivities for [[Huitzilopochtli]], a blue hummingbird god. (Real hummingbirds feed on amaranth flowers.) The Aztec month of [[Aztec calendar|Panquetzaliztli]] (7 December to 26 December) was dedicated to Huitzilopochtli. People decorated their homes and trees with paper flags; there were ritual races, processions, dances, songs, prayers, and finally human sacrifices. This was one of the more important Aztec festivals, and the people prepared for the whole month. They fasted or ate very little; a statue of the god was made out of amaranth (''huautli'') seeds and honey, and at the end of the month, it was cut into small pieces so everybody could eat a little piece of the god. After the Spanish conquest, cultivation of amaranth was outlawed, while some of the festivities were [[:wikt:subsume|subsumed]] into the [[Christmas]] celebration.
| |
| − | | |
| − | Because of its importance as a symbol of indigenous culture, and because it is very palatable{{cite}}, easy to cook, and its protein particularly well suited to human nutritional needs, interest in grain amaranth (especially ''A. cruentus'' and ''A. hypochondriacus'') revived in the 1970s. It was recovered in Mexico from wild varieties and is now commercially cultivated. It is a popular snack sold in [[Mexico City]] and other parts of Mexico, sometimes mixed with [[chocolate]] or [[puffed grain|puffed rice]], and its use has spread to [[Europe]] and parts of [[North America]]. Amaranth and [[quinoa]] are called [[pseudograin]]s because of their flavor and cooking similarities to grains. These are dicot plant seeds, and both contain exceptionally [[complete protein]] for plant sources{{citation needed|date=September 2011}}. Besides [[protein]], [[amaranth grain]] provides a good source of [[dietary fiber]] and [[dietary mineral]]s such as [[iron]], [[magnesium]], [[phosphorus]], [[copper]], and especially [[manganese]].
| |
| − | | |
| − | Scientific studies suggest Amaranth grain is a good source of essential amino acid [[lysine]], something other grains are low in. Amaranth is not a complete source of [[essential amino acid]]s. For example, amaranth is limiting in [[leucine]] and [[threonine]] - essential amino acids that are abundant in other grains. Amaranth may therefore be a promising supplement to other grains.<ref name=ALT>{{cite journal|author=Ricardo Bressani, Luiz G. Elias and Arnoldo Garcia-Soto|year=1989|title=Limiting amino acids in raw and processed amaranth grain protein from biological tests|journal=Plant foods for human nutrition | volume=39|issue=3|pages= 223–234| publisher=Kluwer Academic Publishers|doi= 10.1007/BF01091933}}</ref>
| |
| − | | |
| − | Amaranth grain is a crop of moderate importance in the [[Himalayas]]{{cite}}.
| |
| − | | |
| − | ===Leaves, roots, and stems===
| |
| − | Amaranth species are cultivated and consumed as a leaf vegetable in many parts of the world. There are four species of ''Amaranthus'' documented as cultivated vegetables in eastern Asia: ''[[Amaranthus cruentus]]'', ''[[Amaranthus blitum]], [[Amaranthus dubius]]'', and ''[[Amaranthus tricolor]]''.<ref>Costea (2003). Notes on Economic Plants. Economic Botany 57(4): 646-649</ref>
| |
| − | | |
| − | In [[Indonesia]] and [[Malaysia]], leaf amaranth is called ''bayam'', while the [[Tagalogs]] in the [[Philippines]] call the plant ''alocon.'' In the state of [[Uttar Pradesh]] and [[Bihar]] in [[India]], it is called Chaulai and is a popular green leafy vegetable (referred to in the class of vegetable preparations called Saag). It is called Chua in Kumaun area of Uttarakhand, where it is a popular red-green vegetable. In Karnataka state in India it is used to prepare curries like Hulee, palya, Majjigay-hulee and so on. In the state of [[Kerala]], it's called 'Cheera' and is consumed by stir-frying the leaves with spices and red chillies to make 'Cheera Thoran'. In [[Tamilnadu]] State, it is called முளைக்கீரை and is regularly consumed as a favourite dish, where the greens are steamed, and mashed, with light seasoning of salt, red chillis and cumin. It is called ''keerai masial (கீரை மசியல்)''. In [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[India]], this leaf is added in preparation of a popular [[dal]] called ''thotakura pappu'' తొట కూర పప్పు ([[Telugu language|Telugu]]). In [[Maharashtra]], it is called as "Shravani Maath" (literally माठ grown in month of ''Shravan'') and it is available in both red and white colour. In [[Orissa]], it is called as "Khada saga", it is used to prepare 'Saga Bhaja', in which the leaf is fried with chillies and onions.
| |
| − | | |
| − | The root of mature amaranth is an excellent vegetable. It is white and cooked with tomatoes or tamarind gravy. It has a milky taste and is alkaline.
| |
| − | | |
| − | In [[China]], the leaves and stems are used as a stir-fry vegetable, or in soups, and called ''yin choi'' (苋菜; pinyin: xiàncài; and variations on this transliteration in various dialects). Amaranth greens are believed to help enhance eyesight. In [[Vietnam]], it is called ''rau dền'' and is used to make [[soup]]. There are two species popular as edible vegetable in Vietnam: ''dền đỏ''- amaranthus tricolor and ''dền cơm'' or ''dền trắng''- amaranthus viridis.
| |
| − | | |
| − | A traditional food plant in Africa, amaranth has the potential to improve nutrition, boost [[food security]], foster rural development and support sustainable landcare.<ref>{{cite book |last= |first= |authorlink= |author=National Research Council |editor= |others= |title=Lost Crops of Africa: Volume II: Vegetables |origdate= |url=http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=11763 |format= |accessdate=2008-07-15 |edition= |series=Lost Crops of Africa |volume=2 |date=2006-10-27 |publisher=National Academies Press |location= |isbn=978-0-309-10333-6 |oclc= 34344933 79635740|doi= |id= |pages= |chapter=Amaranth |chapterurl=http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=11763&page=35 |quote= |ref= }}</ref>
| |
| − | In [[East Africa]], Amaranth leaf is known in [[Chewa language|chewa]] as ''bonongwe,'' and in [[Swahili language|Swahili]] as ''mchicha'', as ''terere'' in [[Kikuyu language|Kikuyu]], [[Meru language|Meru]] and [[Embu language|Embu]]; and as ''telele'' in [[Kamba language|Kamba]]. In Bantu regions of [[Uganda]] it is known as ''doodo''.<ref>{{cite book
| |
| − | | author=Goode,
| |
| − | | title=Edible plants of Uganda
| |
| − | | publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
| |
| − | | unused_data=P.M. year=1989}}</ref> It is recommended by some doctors for people having low [[Hematocrit|red blood cell count]]. It is also known among the [[Kalenjin people|Kalenjin]] as a [[drought]] crop (''chepkerta''). In [[Lingala language|Lingala]] (spoken in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] and the [[Republic of Congo]]), it is known as ''lɛngalɛnga'' or ''bítɛkutɛku''.<ref>{{cite journal
| |
| − | | author=Enama, M.
| |
| − | | year=1994
| |
| − | | title=Culture: The missing nexus in ecological economics perspective
| |
| − | | journal=Ecological Economics
| |
| − | | issue=10
| |
| − | | pages=93–95
| |
| − | | doi=10.1016/0921-8009(94)00010-7
| |
| − | | volume=10
| |
| − | }}</ref> In [[Nigeria]], it is a common vegetable and goes with all Nigerian starch dishes. It is known in [[Yoruba language|Yoruba]] as ''efo tete'' or ''arowo jeja'' (meaning "we have money left over for fish"). In the [[Caribbean]], the leaves are called ''[bhaji in Trinidad) or(callaloo in Jamaica]'' and stewed with onions, garlic and tomatoes, or sometimes used in a soup called pepperpot soup.
| |
| − | | |
| − | In [[Greece]], green amaranth (''[[Amaranthus viridis]]'') is a popular dish and is called ''vlita'' or ''vleeta''. It's boiled, then served with [[olive oil]] and [[lemon]] like a [[salad]], usually alongside fried [[fish]]. Greeks stop harvesting the plant (which usually grows wild) when it starts to bloom at the end of August.
| |
| − | | |
| − | In Sri Lanka, it is called "koora thampala". Sri Lankans cook it and eat it with rice. Fiji Indians call it choraiya bhaji.
| |
| − | | |
| − | ===Dyes===
| |
| − | The flowers of the 'Hopi Red Dye' amaranth were used by the [[Hopi]] (a tribe in the western United States) as the source of a deep red [[natural dye|dye]]. There is also a synthetic dye that has been named "amaranth" for its similarity in color to the natural amaranth [[pigment]]s known as [[betalain]]s. This synthetic dye is also known as [[Red No. 2]] in North America and E123 in the [[European Union]].<ref>"The following color additives are not authorized for use in food products in the United States: (1) Amaranth (C.I. 16185, EEC No. E123, formerly certifiable as FD&C red No. 2);" [http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~comm/cp03803.html FDA/CFSAN Food Compliance Program: Domestic Food Safety Program]</ref>
| |
| − | '''
| |
| − | | |
| − | ===Ornamentals===
| |
| − | The genus also contains several well-known ornamental plants, such as ''[[Amaranthus caudatus]]'' (love-lies-bleeding), a native of [[India]] and a vigorous, hardy annual with dark purplish [[flower]]s crowded in handsome drooping spikes. Another Indian annual, ''A. hypochondriacus'' (prince's feather), has deeply veined lance-shaped leaves, purple on the under face, and deep crimson flowers densely packed on erect spikes.
| |
| − | | |
| − | Amaranths are recorded as food plants for some [[Lepidoptera]] ([[butterfly]] and [[moth]]) species including the [[Nutmeg (moth)|nutmeg moth]] and various case-bearer moths of the genus ''[[Coleophora]]'': ''C. amaranthella'', ''C. enchorda'' (feeds exclusively on ''Amaranthus''), ''C. immortalis'' (feeds exclusively on ''Amaranthus''), ''C. lineapulvella'' and ''C. versurella'' (recorded on ''A. spinosus'').
| |
| − | | |
| − | ==Nutritional value==
| |
| − | '''Amaranth greens''', also called Chau lai (Hindi) and Chu or Chua (Kumauni), '''Chinese spinach''', '''hinn choy''' or '''yin tsoi''' ({{zh|s=苋菜|t=莧菜|p=xiàncài}}); '''callaloo''', '''dhantinasoppu''' ([[Kannada language|Kannada]]); '''తోటకూర''' ([[Telugu language|Telugu]]); '''Rajgira''' ([[Marathi language|Marathi]]); '''முளைக் கீரை''' ([[Tamil language|Tamil]]); '''cheera''' '''ചീര''' ([[Malayalam]]); '''bayam''' ([[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]); '''phak khom''' '''ผักโขม''' ([[Thai language|Thai]]); '''tampala''', or '''quelite''' ([[Oriya language|Oriya]]); '''Khada Saga''', are a common leaf vegetable throughout the tropics and in many warm temperate regions. It is very popular in India{{citation needed|date=September 2011}}.
| |
| − | | |
| − | Cooked amaranth leaves are a good source of [[vitamin A]], [[vitamin C]], and [[folate]]; they are also a complementing source of other vitamins such as [[thiamine]], [[niacin]], and [[riboflavin]], plus some dietary minerals including [[calcium]], [[iron]], [[potassium]], [[zinc]], [[copper]], and [[manganese]]. Cooked amaranth grains are a complementing source of [[thiamine]], [[niacin]], [[riboflavin]], and [[folate]], and dietary minerals including [[calcium]], [[iron]], [[magnesium]], [[phosphorus]], [[zinc]], [[copper]], and [[manganese]] - comparable to common grains such as wheat germ, oats and others.<ref name=usdamrth/>
| |
| − | | |
| − | Amaranth seeds contain [[lysine]], an essential amino acid, limiting in other grains or plant sources.<ref>[http://www.wholehealthmd.com/ME2/dirmod.asp?sid=17E09E7CFFF640448FFB0B4FC1B7FEF0&nm=Reference+Library&type=AWHN_Foods&mod=Foods&mid=&id=7404261D57C74A058ACB873C7E17627F&tier=2 Reference Library | WholeHealthMD<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Most fruits and vegetables do not contain a complete set of amino acids, and thus different sources of protein must be used. Amaranth too is limiting in some essential amino acids, such as [[leucine]] and [[threonine]].<ref name= ALT/> Amaranth seeds are therefore promising complement to common grains such as wheat germ, oats, corn because these common grains are abundant sources of essential amino acids found to be limited in amaranth.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Chemical Composition of the Above-ground Biomass of Amaranthus cruentus and A. hypochondriacus|journal=ACTA VET. BRNO|volume=75|year=2006|pages=133–138|url=http://actavet.vfu.cz/pdf/200675010133.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Amaranth - Alternative Field Crops Manual|url=http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/afcm/amaranth.html|accessdate=September 2011|publisher=University of Wisconsin & University of Minneasota}}</ref>
| |
| − | | |
| − | Amaranth may be a promising source of protein to those who are gluten sensitive, because unlike the protein found in grains such as wheat and rye, its protein does not contain [[gluten]].<ref>[http://glutenfreecooking.about.com/od/nutritionmealplanning/a/amaranth.htm 10 Reasons to Use Amaranth in Your Gluten-Free Recipes], by Teri Gruss, URL accessed Oct 2009.</ref> According to a 2007 report, amaranth compares well in nutrient content with gluten-free vegetarian options such as buckwheat, corn, millet, wild rice, oats and quinoa.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The gluten-free vegetarian|journal=Practical Gastroenterology|date=May 2007|pages=94–106|url=http://www.practicalgastro.com/pdf/May07/May07PaganoArticle.pdf}}</ref>
| |
| − | | |
| − | Several studies have shown that like [[oats]], amaranth seed or oil may be of benefit for those with [[hypertension]] and [[cardiovascular disease]]; regular consumption reduces [[blood pressure]] and [[cholesterol]] levels, while improving [[antioxidant]] status and some immune parameters.<ref>
| |
| − | {{cite journal |author=Czerwiński J, Bartnikowska E, Leontowicz H, ''et al.'' |title=Oat (Avena sativa L.) and amaranth (Amaranthus hypochondriacus) meals positively affect plasma lipid profile in rats fed cholesterol-containing diets |journal=J. Nutr. Biochem. |volume=15 |issue=10 |pages=622–9 |year=2004 |month=Oct |pmid=15542354 |doi=10.1016/j.jnutbio.2004.06.002 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Gonor KV, Pogozheva AV, Derbeneva SA, Mal'tsev GIu, Trushina EN, Mustafina OK |title=[The influence of a diet with including amaranth oil on antioxidant and immune status in patients with ischemic heart disease and hyperlipoproteidemia] |language=Russian |journal=Vopr Pitan |volume=75 |issue=6 |pages=30–3 |year=2006 |pmid=17313043 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Martirosyan DM, Miroshnichenko LA, Kulakova SN, Pogojeva AV, Zoloedov VI |title=Amaranth oil application for coronary heart disease and hypertension |journal=Lipids Health Dis |volume=6 |issue= |pages=1 |year=2007 |pmid=17207282 |pmc=1779269 |doi=10.1186/1476-511X-6-1 }}</ref> While the active ingredient in oats appears to be water-soluble fiber, amaranth appears to lower cholesterol via its content of plant [[Stanol ester|stanols]] and [[squalene]].
| |
| − | | |
| − | Amaranth remains an active area of scientific research for both human nutritional needs and foraging applications. Over 100 scientific studies suggest a somewhat conflicting picture on possible [[antinutrient|anti-nutritional]] and toxic factors in amaranth, more so in some particular strains of amaranth. Lehmann, in a review article, identifies some of these reported anti-nutritional factors in amaranth to be phenolics, saponins, tannins, phytic acid, oxalates, protease inhibitors, nitrates, polyphenols and phytohemagglutinins.<ref>{{cite web|title=Legacy - The Official Newsletter of Amaranth Institute; see pages 6-9|publisher=Amaranth Institute|year=1992|url=http://www.ars-grin.gov/ars/MidWest/Ames/repository/oldsitearchive/Reports_New/Special_Reports/Amaranth/Legacy92.pdf}}</ref> Of these, oxalates and nitrates are of more concern when amaranth grain is used in foraging applications. Some studies suggest thermal processing of amaranth, particularly in moist environment, prior to its preparation in food and human consumption may be a promising way to reduce the adverse effects of amaranth's anti-nutritional and toxic factors.
| |
| − | | |
| − | ==As a weed==
| |
| − | Not all amaranth plants are cultivated. Most of the species from ''Amaranthus'' are summer annual weeds and are commonly referred to as pigweeds.<ref name = "Bensch">Bensch et al. (2003). Interference of redroot pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus), Palmer amaranth (A. palmeri), and common waterhemp (A. rudis) in soybean. Weed Science 51: 37-43.</ref> These species have an extended period of germination, rapid growth, and high rates of seed production<ref name = "Bensch"/>, and have been causing problems for farmers since the mid-1990s. This is partially due to the reduction in [[tillage]], reduction in herbicidal use and the evolution of herbicidal resistance in several species where herbicides have been applied more often.<ref>Wetzel et al. (1999). Use of PCR-based molecular markers to identify weedy Amaranthus species. Weed Science 47: 518-523.</ref> The following 9 species of ''Amaranthus'' are considered invasive and noxious weeds in the U.S and Canada: ''A. albus'', ''A. blitoides'', ''A. hybridus'', ''A. palmeri'', ''A. powellii'', ''A. retroflexus'', ''A. spinosus'', ''A. tuberculatus'', and ''A. viridis''.<ref>[http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=AMARA USDA Plant Database. Plants Profile- ''Amaranthus'' L]</ref>
| |
| − |
| |
| − | A new herbicide-resistant strain of [[Amaranthus palmeri]] or Palmer amaranth has appeared; it is [[Glyphosate]]-resistant and so cannot be killed by the widely used [[Roundup (herbicide)|Roundup]] herbicide. Also, this plant can survive in tough conditions. This could be of particular concern to [[cotton]] farmers using [[Roundup Ready]] cotton.<ref>[http://www.organicconsumers.org/ge/cotton060404.cfm Herbicide Resistant Weeds Causing Problems for US Cotton Growers<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The species ''Amaranthus palmeri'' (Palmer amaranth) causes the greatest reduction in [[soybean]] yields and has the potential to reduce yields by 17-68% in field experiments.<ref name = "Bensch"/> Palmer amaranth is among the “top five most troublesome weeds” in the southeast and has already evolved resistances to dinitroanilines and acetolactate synthase inhibitors.<ref>Culpepper et al. (2006). Glyphosate-resistant Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri) confirmed in Georgia. Weed Science 54: 620-626.</ref> This makes the proper identification of ''Amaranthus'' species at the seedling stage essential for agriculturalists. Proper weed control needs to be applied before the species successfully colonizes in the crop field and causes significant yield reductions.
| |
| − | | |
| − | ===Beneficial weed===
| |
| − | Pigweed can be a [[beneficial weed]], as well as a [[companion plant]], serving as a trap for leaf miners and some other pests, as well as sheltering ground beetles (which prey upon insect pests) and breaking up hard soil for more delicate neighboring plants.
| |
| − | | |
| − | ==Myth, legend and poetry==
| |
| − | The word '''amaranth''' comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word ''amarantos'', meaning "unwithering". The word was applied to amaranth because it did not soon fade and so symbolized immortality. "Amarant" is a more correct, albeit archaic form, chiefly used in poetry. The current spelling, ''amaranth'', seems to have come from [[folk etymology]] that assumed the final syllable derived from the Greek word ''anthos'' ("flower"), common in botanical names.
| |
| − | | |
| − | [[Aesop's Fables]] (6th century BC) compares the rose to the amaranth to illustrate the difference in fleeting and everlasting beauty:
| |
| − | | |
| − | <blockquote>
| |
| − | :A Rose and an Amaranth blossomed side by side in a garden,
| |
| − | :and the Amaranth said to her neighbour,
| |
| − | :"How I envy you your beauty and your sweet scent!
| |
| − | :No wonder you are such a universal favourite."
| |
| − | :But the Rose replied with a shade of sadness in her voice,
| |
| − | :"Ah, my dear friend, I bloom but for a time:
| |
| − | :my petals soon wither and fall, and then I die.
| |
| − | :But your flowers never fade, even if they are cut;
| |
| − | :for they are everlasting."
| |
| − | </blockquote>
| |
| − | | |
| − | Or in story form:
| |
| − | | |
| − | <blockquote>
| |
| − | :An amaranth planted in a garden near a Rose-Tree, thus addressed it: "What a lovely flower is the Rose, a favorite alike with Gods and with men. I envy you your beauty and your perfume." The Rose replied, "I indeed, dear Amaranth, flourish but for a brief season! If no cruel hand pluck me from my stem, yet I must perish by an early doom. But thou art immortal and dost never fade, but bloomest for ever in renewed youth."
| |
| − | </blockquote>
| |
| − | | |
| − | Thus, in [[John Milton|John Milton's]] epic poem ''[[Paradise Lost]]'' (1667), iii. 353:
| |
| − | | |
| − | <blockquote>
| |
| − | :"Immortal amarant, a flower which once
| |
| − | :In paradise, fast by the tree of life,
| |
| − | :Began to bloom; but soon for man's offence
| |
| − | :To heaven removed, where first it grew, there grows,
| |
| − | :And flowers aloft, shading the fount of life,
| |
| − | :And where the river of bliss through midst of heaven
| |
| − | :Rolls o'er elysian flowers her amber stream:
| |
| − | :With these that never fade the spirits elect
| |
| − | :Bind their resplendent locks."
| |
| − | </blockquote>
| |
| − | | |
| − | [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]], in ''[[q:Samuel Taylor Coleridge#Work Without Hope (1825)|Work Without Hope]]'' (1825), also refers to the herb, likely referencing Milton's earlier work. (ll 7-10 excerpted):
| |
| − | | |
| − | <blockquote>
| |
| − | :Yet well I ken the banks where Amaranths blow,
| |
| − | :Have traced the fount whence streams of nectar flow.
| |
| − | :Bloom, O ye Amaranths! bloom for whom ye may,
| |
| − | :For me ye bloom not! Glide, rich streams, away!
| |
| − | | |
| − | In his dialogue ‘Aesop and Rhodopè’, published in 1844, [[Walter Savage Landor]] wrote:
| |
| − | | |
| − | </blockquote>
| |
| − | There are no fields of amaranth on this side of the grave: there are no voices, O Rhodopè, that are not soon mute, however tuneful: there is no name, with whatever emphasis of passionate love repeated, of which the echo is not faint at last.
| |
| − | | |
| − | [[Joachim du Bellay]] mentioned the herb in his "A Vow To Heavenly Venus," ca. 1500.
| |
| − | <blockquote>
| |
| − | :We that with like hearts love, we lovers twain,
| |
| − | :New wedded in the village by thy fane,
| |
| − | :Lady of all chaste love, to thee it is
| |
| − | :We bring these amaranths, these white lilies,
| |
| − | :A sign, and sacrifice; may Love, we pray,
| |
| − | :Like amaranthine flowers, feel no decay;
| |
| − | :Like these cool lilies may our loves remain,
| |
| − | :Perfect and pure, and know not any stain;
| |
| − | :And be our hearts, from this thy holy hour,
| |
| − | :Bound each to each, like flower to wedded flower.
| |
| − | </blockquote>
| |
| − | | |
| − | In ancient [[Greece]], the amaranth (also called [[chrysanthemum]] and [[helichrysum]]) was sacred to Ephesian [[Artemis]]. It was supposed to have special healing properties, and, as a symbol of immortality, was used to decorate images of the gods and [[tomb]]s. In legend, [[Amarynthus]] (a form of Amarantus) was a hunter of Artemis and king of [[Euboea]]; in a village of Amarynthus, of which he was the eponymous hero, there was a famous temple of Artemis Amarynthia or Amarysia (Strabo x. 448; Pausan. i. 31, p. 5). It was also widely used by the Chinese for its healing chemicals, curing illnesses such as infections, rashes, and migraines. The ''"Amarantos"'' is the name of a several-century-old popular Greek folk song:
| |
| − | <blockquote>
| |
| − | :Look at the amaranth:
| |
| − | :on tall mountains it grows,
| |
| − | :on the very stones and rocks
| |
| − | :and places inaccessible.
| |
| − | </blockquote>
| |
| − | | |
| − | ==See also==
| |
| − | | |
| − | [[Amaranth grain|Nutritional quality of amaranth]]
| |
| − | | |
| − | ==Images==
| |
| − | <gallery>
| |
| − | File:Amaranthus caudatus1.jpg|Loves-lies-bleeding (Amaranthus caudatus)苋。
| |
| − | File:Amaranthus.hybridus1web.jpg|Green Amaranth (''A. hybridus'')
| |
| − | File:Amaranth2.jpg|[[Amaranthus pumilus|Seabeach amaranth]] (''A. pumilus''), an amaranth on the Federal [[Threatened species]] List
| |
| − | File:Illustration Amaranthus retroflexus0.jpg|Red-root Amaranth (''A. retroflexus'') - from Thomé, ''Flora von Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz'' 1885
| |
| − | File:Amaranthus.spinosus1web.jpg|Spiny Amaranth (''Amaranthus spinosus'')
| |
| − | File:Amaranthus.viridis1web.jpg|Green Amaranth (''Amaranthus viridis'')
| |
| − | File:Amaranth sp 2.jpg| Popping Amaranth (Amaranthus sp.)
| |
| − | File:Amaranth und WW.jpg|[[Amaranth grain]] (left) and [[wheat]] (right)
| |
| − | File:Travancore Cheera Thoran.JPG|Southern Kerala-style traditional [[Thoran]] made with ''Cheera'' (Amaranth) leaves
| |
| − | File:Fepm (8).jpg|Example from [[Chilpancingo]]
| |
| − | </gallery>
| |
| − | | |
| − | ==Notes==
| |
| − | {{reflist}}
| |
| − | | |
| − | ==Sources==
| |
| − | *Lenz, ''Botanik der alt. Greich. und Rom.'' Botany of old. (1859)
| |
| − | *J. Murr, ''Die Pflanzenwelt in der griech. Mythol.'' Plants in Greek Mythology. (1890)
| |
| − | | |
| − | ==External links==
| |
| − | {{Commons category|Amaranthus}}
| |
| − | | |
| − | ===Information===
| |
| − | {{unimelb|Amaranthus.html}}
| |
| − | | |
| − | ===Images===
| |
| − | *''[http://www.hear.org/starr/hiplants/images/thumbnails/html/amaranthus_hybridus_thumbnails.htm Amaranthus hybridus]''
| |
| − | *''[http://www.hear.org/starr/hiplants/images/thumbnails/html/amaranthus_spinosus_thumbnails.htm Amaranthus spinosus]''
| |
| − | *''[http://www.hear.org/starr/hiplants/images/600max/html/starr_010520_0109_amaranthus_viridis.htm Amaranthus viridis]''
| |
| − | | |
| − | {{Cereals}}
| |
| − | | |
| − | [[Category:Amaranthus| ]]
| |
| − | [[Category:Grains]]
| |
| − | [[Category:Leaf vegetables]]
| |
| − | [[Category:Greek loanwords]]
| |
| − | [[Category:Tropical agriculture]]
| |
| − | [[Category:Crops originating from Africa]]
| |
| − | [[Category:Vietnamese ingredients]]
| |
| − | | |
| − | [[az:Qaratərə]]
| |
| − | [[br:Amarant]]
| |
| − | [[ca:Amarant]]
| |
| − | [[cs:Laskavec]]
| |
| − | [[de:Amarant (Pflanzengattung)]]
| |
| − | [[es:Amaranthus]]
| |
| − | [[eo:Amaranto]]
| |
| − | [[eu:Amaranto]]
| |
| − | [[fa:تاج خروس]]
| |
| − | [[fr:Amarante (plante)]]
| |
| − | [[hi:चौलाई]]
| |
| − | [[hsb:Šćěrjenc]]
| |
| − | [[io:Amaranto]]
| |
| − | [[id:Bayam]]
| |
| − | [[it:Amaranto (alimento)]]
| |
| − | [[he:ירבוז]]
| |
| − | [[jv:Bayem]]
| |
| − | [[kn:ದಂಟು]]
| |
| − | [[kk:Амарант]]
| |
| − | [[lt:Burnotis]]
| |
| − | [[ln:Bítɛkutɛku]]
| |
| − | [[hu:Amaránt]]
| |
| − | [[ms:Bayam]]
| |
| − | [[nah:Huauhtli]]
| |
| − | [[nl:Amarant (geslacht)]]
| |
| − | [[ja:アマランサス]]
| |
| − | [[pnb:کیویچا]]
| |
| − | [[pl:Szarłat]]
| |
| − | [[pt:Amaranto]]
| |
| − | [[qu:Sankurachi]]
| |
| − | [[ru:Амарант]]
| |
| − | [[simple:Amaranth]]
| |
| − | [[su:Bayem]]
| |
| − | [[fi:Revonhännät]]
| |
| − | [[sv:Amarantsläktet]]
| |
| − | [[te:తోటకూర]]
| |
| − | [[tr:Amaranthus]]
| |
| − | [[uk:Щириця]]
| |
| − | [[vi:Chi Dền]]
| |
| − | [[zh:苋属]]
| |
